My Last Duchess Essays (462 words) - My Last Duchess,

My Last Duchess A sensational monolog is characterized as a sonnet where a solitary character is addressing an individual or people typically about a significant subject. The reason of most emotional monologs is to give the peruser an in general or personal perspective on the's character. An extraordinary writer can utilize accentuation and beat to cause the sonnet to show up as though it were a genuine discussion. Robert Sautéing, known as the dad of the sensational monolog, does this in his sonnet, My Last Duchess. The Duke of Ferrara, the speaker in My Last Duchess, is depicted as an envious, haughty man who is extremely controlling over his significant other. The Duke of Ferrara was made envious by everything the duchess did, no matter how irrelevant it was. He was particularly envious of Fra Pandolf, the man who painted the duchess in the sonnet. A lady ought to be satisfied distinctly by her spouse, as was not the situation with the duchess and Fra Pandolf. She was as well effortlessly intrigued by the painter (line 23). Fra Pandolf was by all account not the only man that made the duke envious. Each and every individual who passed the duchess got much the same grin as the duke (line 44). The duke expected to be the main man to get a grin from his better half. Another part of the duke's character tended to in the sonnet is his deigning mentality. Multiple times in the sonnet the duke unnecessarily told the names of the specialists who made the perfect works of art that he claimed (lines 3 and 56). He felt predominance over the emissary he was addressing by dropping these names. The duke tended to the emissary as anever read stranger (line 6). In addition to the fact that it was belittling for the duke to consider him an outsider, however he called him unintelligent as well. The third character quality of the duke is his controlling conduct. In lines nine and ten he told the emissary that nobody puts by the window ornament that he had drawn for him however the duke himself. He wanted to control who at any point took a gander at the artistic creation of the duchess. The primary proof of his commanding conduct is in line 46. The line peruses, ...then all grins halted together. The line is uncertain, however the doubtlessly understanding is that the duke had his significant other slaughtered. The sonnet can be deciphered in a few distinct manners, however in all cases the duke is a very controlling man. In spite of the fact that My Last Duchess was set a very long time before, exercises can be gained from it and utilized in the present society. No single good lies underneath the sonnet yet on the off chance that one must be discovered, it would be the brilliant guideline. Do unto others as you might want them to do unto you. One would definitely concur that the duke picked up nothing by being how he was. Only consideration gets an individual ahead, regardless of what society that individual is from.

How Many People Are Killed or Injured in Hunting Accidents

What number of People Are Killed or Injured in Hunting Accidents As indicated by the International Hunter Education Association, in a normal year, less thanâ 1,000 individuals in the US and Canada are unintentionally shot by trackers, and of these, less than 75 are fatalities. By and large, these fatalities are self-dispensed by trackers who outing, fall, or have different mishaps that cause them to shoot themselves with their own weapons. A large portion of different fatalities come in chasing parties, where one tracker shoots another unintentionally. Gun Fatalities in Hunting Casualty numbers have improved to some degree as of late, on account of broad tracker training programs accessible in many states, however chasing comes with innate risks. Chasing fatalities because of guns represent about 12% to 15% of all fatalities because of guns broadly. Chasing advocates call attention to that the odds of a demise because of a gun mishap of any sort are generally equivalent to a passing from dropping out of a bed, seat, or another household item around 1 out of 4,888. On the off chance that you analyze unadulterated numbers, around 20 fold the number of individuals bite the dust every year by coincidental suffocating than do by mishaps while chasing. These insights are deceiving, be that as it may, since unmistakably a larger number of individuals take part in recreational swimming than draw in inâ sports chasing with firearms.â In general inadvertent demise insights from the National Safety Council can give some unique situation. Of all inadvertent deaths:â 1 out of each 114 is an engine vehicle crash1 out of each 370 is a purposeful ambush by a firearm1 out of 1,188 is because of unplanned drowning1 out of everyâ â 6,905 is an incidental guns discharge1 out of everyâ 161,856 is because of a lightning strike It must be noted, in any case, that a considerable number of inadvertent passings by guns don't include trackers. When shooting-related fatalities happen in hunting,â most of the casualties are trackers, althoughâ non-trackers are likewise here and there executed or harmed. It tends to be said this is a game that poses some threat to a whole network, not simply to the willing participants.â Chasing Accident Statistics A report distributed by American orthopedic specialists Randall Loder and Neil Farren in 2014 demonstrated that somewhere in the range of 1993 and 2008, 35,970 gun related wounds associated with chasing were accounted for to US clinics or around 2,400 every year over the fifteen-year time of the investigation. That is out of a sum of 1,841,269 all out mishaps including guns (about every year 123,000).â Trackers harmed by guns in this investigation were almost all Caucasian (91.8%), youthful grown-up to moderately aged (ages 24â€44) and male (91.8%), who came to little medical clinics (65.9%) to be dealt with. They were frequently shot (56%) however different wounds breaks and gashes from dropping out of trees, and so on.- made up the rest. The wounds were generally basic in the head and neck (46.9%), self-exacted (85%), accidental (99.4%), at a school or entertainment focus (37.1%), and with a general death pace of 0.6% (around 144 every year). The death rate is lower than detailed somewhere else in light of the fact that the investigation incorporated all wounds announced with chasing mishaps. Liquor was an issue in just 1.5% of the cases. The most widely recognized kind of injury was a gash (37%), not a cut injury (15.4%).â It will not shock anyone that a large portion of the wounds happened during the chasing a very long time of October, November, and December. The investigation found that the assessed occurrence of a gun injury related with chasing exercises is 9 out of 1 million chasing days.â Chasing Related Accidents in Context In all actuality, the greater part of the most serious perils to huntersâ areâ not identified with guns yet happen for different reasons, for example, fender benders heading out to and from chasing locales or respiratory failures while climbing woods and slopes. Especially dangerousâ are tumble from tree stands. Late gauges state that there are very nearly 6,000 chasing mishaps to trackers every year including tumbles from tree stands-six fold the number of as are injured by guns. An ongoing review in the territory of Indiana found that 55% of all chasing related mishaps in that state were identified with tree stands.â By far most of lethal inadvertent shootings while chasing include the utilization of shotguns or rifles while chasing deer. This is likewise maybe nothing unexpected, since deer chasing is one of the most well known types of chasing where powerful guns are used.â The Committee to Abolish Sport Hunting keeps up the Hunting Accidents Center, which gathers reports about chasing mishaps all through the world. In spite of the fact that the rundown is long, its not far reaching, and few out of every odd chasing mishap is accounted for in the news. Sources Stylist, C, et al. Thinks little of Unintentional Firearm Fatalities: Comparing Supplementary Homicide Report Data with the National Vital Statistics System. Injury Prevention 8.3 (2002): 252â€56. Print.Carter, Gary L. Unplanned Firearms Fatalities and Injuries among Recreational Hunters. Archives of Emergency Medicine 18.4 (1989): 406â€09. Print.Greninger, Howard. Tumbles from tree stands top chasing mishaps. Terre Haute Tribune Star, November 11, 2014.Incident Reports. Dependable Hunting, International Hunter Education Association. Loder, Randall T., and Neil Farren. Wounds from Firearms in Hunting Activities. Injury 45.8 (2014): 1207â€14. Print.Reports of chasing mishaps for the present year. Chasing Accidents Center, Committee to Abolish Sports Hunting. What Are the Odds of Dying From... At Work: Tools and Resources. National Safety Council.

Figure-Ground Perception in Psychology

Figure-Ground Perception in Psychology Theories Cognitive Psychology Print Figure-Ground Perception in Psychology By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Updated on January 16, 2020 Diarb2008 / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0 More in Theories Cognitive Psychology Behavioral Psychology Developmental Psychology Personality Psychology Social Psychology Biological Psychology Psychosocial Psychology Figure-ground perception refers to the tendency of the visual system to simplify a scene into the main object that we are looking at (the figure) and everything else that forms the background (or ground). The concept of figure-ground perception is often illustrated with the classic faces or vases illusion, also known as the Rubin vase. Depending on whether you see the black or the white as the figure, you may see either two faces in profile (meaning you perceive the dark color as the figure) or a vase in the center (meaning you see the white color as the figure). A History of Figure-Ground Perception The concept of figure-ground perception emerged out of the field of Gestalt psychology. According to the Gestalt approach, the whole is more (or different) than the sum of its parts.?? The term Gestalt itself comes from the German word meaning form or shape. During the 1920s, a number of German psychologists including Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Kohler began studying different principles of perception that govern how people make sense of an often disorderly world. Their work led to what is known as the Gestalt laws of perceptual organization. The Gestalt theory of perception proposes that people make sense of the world around them by talking separate and distinct elements and combining them into a unified whole.?? For example, if you look at shapes drawn on a piece of paper, your mind will likely group the shapes in terms of things such as similarity or proximity. Objects that are similar to one another tend to be grouped together. Objects that are near each other also tend to be grouped together. While the concept of figure-ground perception is an important principle in Gestalt psychology, it is usually not identified as one of the laws of perceptual organization. Figure-ground perception describes one of the most fundamental ways that we simplify a visual scene. How the Perceptual Process Works How Do People Distinguish Between Figure and Ground? When looking at a visual scene, people tend to look for ways to differentiate between the figure and the ground. Some ways that people accomplish this include:?? Blurriness: Objects in the foreground tend to be crisp and distinct while those in the background are blurry or hazy.Contrast:  The high contrast between objects can lead to the perception of figure and ground. The Rubin vase is one example.Size: Images that appear to be larger will be perceived as closer and part of the figure while those that are smaller will seem further away and part of the background.Separation: An object isolated from everything else in a visual scene is more likely to be seen as a figure versus background. Examples The faces or vases illustration is one of the most frequent demonstrations of figure-ground. What you see when you look at the faces or vases illusion depends on whether you see the white as the figure or the black as the figure. If you see the white as the figure, then you perceive a vase. If you see the black as the figure, then you see two faces in profile. Most people are able to reverse their perceptions and switch back and forth between the vase and faces images. The artist M.C. Escher famously used this concept to create a number of fascinating figure-ground reversals.?? His elaborate drawings often include clever visuals that trick the eye and create fascinating figure-ground changes. 6 Fascinating Optical Illusions

Stereotypes, Prejudice, And Prejudice - 1429 Words

In recent discussions of American Born Chinese, a controversial issue has been whether Yang represents the stereotype successfully on his book or not. On the one hand, some argue that he go a little off from his main point from his book. From this perspective, many people found the book that it is not good enough to read. On the other hand, however, others insist that Yang did a great job on representing stereotypes, which makes his book very powerful and interesting to read. In the words of one of this view’s proponents, â€Å"I had heard about stereotypes, but never really fully understood them. This book has taught me to at least get a little grasp on the pain and hurt that stereotypes can really cause.† (Printz p.g 11). According to this view, many people really got the meaning of stereotypes by reading American Born Chines. In sum, then, the issue is whether Yang represents the stereotypes well enough in his book or not. My own view is that Yang successfully stated stereotypes in his book that made it a powerful book. After, all, I have chosen to ide ntify as a college student at Winona State University. Though I concede that Yang could ended his book differently to make it more interesting, but I still maintain that he stated the stereotype successfully because he made it clear enough to the reader to see the stereotypes from the text and images and using three different stories in the same book. Combining texts and images to clarify stereotypes to the reader was anShow MoreRelatedStereotype and Prejudice784 Words   |  4 Pages Stereotypes and Prejudice Worksheet Please complete the following exercises, remembering that you are in an academic setting and should remain unbiased, considerate, and professional when completing this worksheet. Part I Select three of the identity categories below and name or describe at least 3 related stereotypes for each: * Race * Ethnicity * Religion * Gender * Sexual orientation * Age * Disability Category | Stereotype 1 | Stereotype 2 | StereotypeRead More Stereotypes, Discrimination and Prejudice Essay1506 Words   |  7 PagesStereotypes, Discrimination and Prejudice If a young girl is walking alone through a park late at night and encounters three senior citizens walking with canes and three teenage boys wearing leather jackets, it is likely that she will feel threatened by the latter and not the former. Why is this so? To start off, we have made a generalization in each case. By stereotyping, we assume that a person or group has certain characteristics. Often, these stereotypical generalizations are not accurateRead MoreRacism, Prejudice, And Stereotypes Essay1905 Words   |  8 Pageswhere we look for and acknowledge the stigma of racial stereotypes as presented by the media. People, for the most part, do not go to the movies, thinking about stereotypes or racism. Tim White defines racism as, â€Å"denying the right of self-determination and the exercise of full autonomy to others (White, 101)† and I think this movie plays right into that definition. It is easy for those of us in this class to see the racism, bigotry, and stereotypes that are present in this movie. Unfortunately, I doRead MoreModern Day Stereotypes And Prejudice962 Words   |  4 Pages Modern day stereotypes and prejudice only help to nationalize the hysteria and make it appear like less of a problem and more like entertainment. This can be seen, specifically, with the current Syrian Refugee Crisis occurring in the United States. Walter Kirn, an American novelist and literary critic, stated that ‘‘Everyone loves a witch hunt as long as it’s someone else’s witch being hunted.’’ (Kirn, Walter). Thus, proving that the Crucible was also looked upon as daily entertainment and the SyrianRead MoreRacial Stereotypes, Racism, Prejudice, And Stereotypes Essay1720 Words   |  7 Pageswhere we look for and acknowledge the stigma of racial stereotypes as presented by media. People, for the most part, do not go to the movies thinking about stereotypes or racism. Tim White defines racism as, â€Å"denying the right of self-determination and the exercise of full autonomy to others (White 101)† and I think this movie plays right into that definition. It is easy for those of us in this class to see the racism, bigotry, and stereotypes that are present in this movie. Unfortunately, I do notRead MoreStereotypes And Prejudice : Their Automatic And Controlled Components1169 Words   |  5 PagesArticle 1 – Stereotypes and Prejudice: Their Automatic and Controlled Components Devine (1989) argues that stereotypes are inevitable on the basis that stereotypes and prejudice coexist and that stereotyping occurs automatically. Devine attempts to prove this hypothesis in three experiments. Devine reasons that â€Å"as long as stereotypes exist, prejudice will follow.† This hypothesis is rooted in a correlation. Prejudice and stereotypes are related, however there is no clear evidence of causality;Read MoreImpact of Prejudice Stereotype and Discrimination Essay897 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"Most people know about and have experienced prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination. Social psychologists differentiate among these terms by focusing on whether they involve feelings (affect), cognition, or behaviors.† (Feenstra, J. 2013) As individuals we tend to migrate toward those that may look think or act like us because it may cause hate towards anyone that is different. This may inhibit social interaction with those outside of our comfort zone. T here are often consequences that affectRead MorePride And Prejudice : Sexist Stereotypes Of Women1132 Words   |  5 PagesPride and Prejudice Reinforces Sexist Stereotypes of Women â€Å"Pride and Prejudice†, a novel written by Jane Austen represents eighteenth century English women as illogical, domestic individuals who economically depend on male members in their household. Major decisions in their life are decided by their fathers and brothers. They perform subordinate roles, and are considered inferior to men. This novel reinforces the sexist stereotypes of women.The female characters in the novel possess these virtuesRead MoreStereotypes Prejudice:. What Are They, And How Do They1825 Words   |  8 Pages Stereotypes Prejudice: What are they, and how do they affect communication? Today we live in a world of diversity, we have thousands of different cultures that all share the same earth. Due to this fact it is important that all of these different cultures, filled with valuable ideas, beliefs, thoughts, and people be able to communicate. There is many barriers that keep people from different cultures from communicating. Some of them are very obvious, and easy to identify such as language, locationRead MoreStereotypes And Prejudice Toward A Lesbian Couple Essay1662 Words   |  7 PagesStereotypes and prejudice toward a lesbian couple; Jen’s and Allison’s story While gay and lesbian people are as diverse as everyone else, their shared experience of discrimination seems to unite them. The blog I have chosen to focus on for this analysis is a married lesbian couple with two children. Jen and Allison are two lesbians who had their first child in January 2011 and had their second child in December 2012. The happy family lives in Canada. Canada is internationally seen as the leader

A Turning Point For Morocco s Political System - 1455 Words

The 1980’s marked a turning point for Morocco’s political system. Up to then, Moroccos primary focus was on keeping the country together and to consolidate their state institutions and very little importance was given to sound economic policy (Ali, Ben 2007). In 1982 the financial crisis helped in sparking interest in their economic issues leading to adjutments in the structure of liberalization and privatisation in order to get foreign direct investments (FDI). The reforms were aimed at trade and credit and they took away import quotas and tariff rates were reduced to create a better environment for FDI that required guarantees for property and contract rights (IFIs), such as the International Monetary Fund, who gave the country†¦show more content†¦(Mouden 1998) argues the first and most vital effects of modification was that it made economics more important in the political governing in Morocco. Thus far, this pattern and order in Morocco is secure, thanks m ostly to foreign tension and incentives putting a premium on stability and economic development. Most of the growth in Morocco can be attributed to outstanding agricultural production a much higher growth than industry and services 7. The biggest issue is theree is disparate growth level because agriculture only contributes partially to creating stable jobs because agriculture production is made to domestic consumption and teh recession in Eurpoe, moroccoan exports fell drastically in 2009. Another issues of the global economic crisis has been the reduction in the flux of migrants remittances and in the rents deriving from tourism. Regarding energy, Morocco is rich in agricultural resources and phosphates but is in constant need of energy. It is a net importer of enery and heavily depneds on it. This makes for a fragile state for Morocco’s economy and is expected to increase in the future because of growing urbanization. 9 Unemployment is a critical issues for Morocco and its road to development. The quality of employment is mostly poor, especially in the country12. Morocco faces a problem that many other countries face and that is the rate of unemployed graduate

Western Heritage 8th Edition Free Essays

Brittney Henley Pd. 2A Chapter 12: Age of Religious Wars Key Topics; -War between Calvinists and Catholics in France. -The Spanish occupation of the Netherlands. We will write a custom essay sample on Western Heritage 8th Edition or any similar topic only for you Order Now -Struggle for supremacy between England and Spain. -The devastation of Central Europe during the Thirty Years’ War. Vocabulary |Notes | | | | |Counter Reformation- A movement within the Rome |Renewed Religious Struggle | |Catholic Church that sought to revitalize the |Peace of Augsburg (1555)- A regions rule would determine its religion, However it | |church and oppose Protestantism. did not recognize Non Lutheran Protestants | | |Geneva became a refuge for persecuted protestants and an international school for | |Baroque Art- 3 dimensional display of life and |protestant leaders | |energy. | | | | |Politiques- Ruler who urged tolerance and |French Wars of Religion | |moderation and compromise on religious matters |Anti-Protestant Measures and the struggle for political power | | |French Protestants are known as Huguenots. | |They were persecuted by the French, when King Charles of Germany / Spain captured | |Huguenots- French Protestants. |Frances King’. To pacify King Charles, France persecutes the Huguenots in the | | |hopes of gaining the freedom of the King of France. | | | | |Edict of Fontainebleau—Subjected French Protestants to the inquisition | | |France remain hostile to the protestants until King Henry of Navarre gains the | | |throne | | | | | |3 competing fraction for the Kings (Francis II) ear in France | | |Bourbons- power in the south and west | | |Montmorency-Chatillons- controlled the center of France | | |Guises- dominate in eastern France / Strongest power and had more influence over | | |the king due to family connection | | |Bourbons and Montmorency-Chatillons developed strong Huguenot sympathies | | | | | |Conspiracy of Amboise (1560) – Bourbons and Montmorency-Chatillons plotted to | | |kidnap the king of France (Frances II) | | | | | |Appeal of Calvinism | | |Huguenots were in important geographic areas and were heavily represented among | | |the more powerful segments of French society. They wanted t o establish sovereignty| | |with in France. | | | | | |Catherine De Medici and the Guises | | |Catherine mother to 15 year old Frances II becomes the regent of France upon the | | |death of her husband Henry II. | |On the death of Frances II her younger son Charles IX becomes king where she | | |resides as regent. Catherine fears the power of the Guiles family and sought | | |alliances with the Protestants. | | |She issues the January Edict which allows protestants freedom to worship publicly | | |outside of towns. | | |Duke of Guise surprised a protestant congregation at Vassy, Champagne and | | |massacred the worshipers. This is the beginning of the French wars of Religion | | |March 1562 | | | | | | | | |Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1570) | | |Ended the thirty year war, the crown acknowledging the power of the Protestant | | |nobility, granted Huguenots religious freedoms within their territory. | | |Catherine fearing the mounting power of the other two families and Protestants she| |Coligny: leader of the Huguenots, Charles IX most|cultivates the support of the Guise. | |trusted advisor. | | | |The Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre | | |Catherine tried to have Coligny assassinated by a bullet. Fearing the fallout from| | |the attempt, she convinces King Charles that the Huguenots were attempting to | | |attack Paris | | |On Saint Bartholomew’s Day August 24, 1572, Coligny and 3000 Huguenots were | | |massacred in Paris. Within 3days another 20,000 were executed | | | | | |The Rise to Power of Henry Navarre | | |Henry III sought the middle ground and gained support from a growing body of | |Protestant Resistance Theory: |neutral Catholics and Huguenots. | | | |John Knox- wrote First Blast of the Trumpet |Peace of Beaulieu (May 1576)- granted the Huguenots almost complete religious and | |against the Terrible Regiment of Women |civil freedom. It was later recanted because of political pressure of the Catholic| |-He declared removal of a heathen tyrant was |League. Both religious orders pick up arms. | |permissible | | | |Henry Navarre led the Protestant army. Henry III brother-in-law) | |Francois Hotman- wrote Franco-Gallia | | |-Humanist argument that representa tive Estate |Day of the Barricades –Henry III surprise attack on the Catholic League (Spain | |General held more authority then the French king |Supported) and failed. Henry then assassinated the Duke and Cardinal of Guise. | | |Reprisal from the League was fierce causing Henry III to join forces with Henry | |Theodore Beza- wrote On the Right of Magistrates |Navarre. Henry III was killed; Henry IV (Navarre) is the next successor to the | |Over their Subjects |throne. |-Permissible for lower authorities to overthrow | | |tyrannical rulers |Protestant as king, the League wants France to be Catholic but politically weak so| | |Spain sends in troops to help achieve this goal in hopes of putting his daughter | |Philippe du Plessis Mornay- Defense of Liberty |on the throne. | |Against Tyrants |The French rallied behind their king disbanding the League and outing the Spanish. | |-Princes, Nobles and magistrates are guardians |Henry IV turns Catholic. Ending the war of religion in France | |and to take up arms against tyranny in other land| | | | | | | | | |Edict of Nantes | | |Proclaimed a formal religious settlement it recognized minor religions in an | | |official Catholic country | | | | | |Treaty of Vervins -ended hostility between France and Spain | | | | | |Imperial Spain and the Reign of Philip II | | |Gold Silver and bullion were being imported from Spain’s colonies in the New | | |World. | | |The increased wealth and population in large cities in Europe triggered inflation. | | | | | |Fewer jobs, less food, wages stagnated and greater coinage in circulation while | | |prices increased. | | | | |The Revolt in the Netherlands- | | |Antoine Perrenot- Cardinal Granvelle. | | |Perrenot hoped to break the local autonomy of the Netherlands providences and | | |establish a centralized royal government directed from Madrid, and religious | | |conformity to Catholic. | | |Granvelle proceeded to reorganize the Netherl ands. | |William of Nassau (Prince of Orange) Count of Egmont organized the Dutch | | |nobility in opposition, which had Granvelle removed from office | | | | | |The Compromise- | | |Margaret (Regent of Spain) spurned the protesters. Leads them to call for aid and | | |rebel against Spain; however the nobility does not support the rebellion. | | |Duke of Alba-sent to the Netherlands to gain control back. | | |He had several thousand suspected heretics publicly executed. | | |He then taxed the people of Netherlands to pay for the suppressing of the revolt. | | | | |Pacification of Ghent- | | |November 4 1576: Spanish mercenaries ran amok in Antwerp killing 7000 people in | | |the streets known as the Spanish fury. | | | | | |Pacification of Ghent (November 8, 1575)- Catholic regions and Protestant regions | | |in the Netherlands unified to oppose Spain. | | | | | |Perpetual Edict- provided for removal of all Spanish troops from the Netherlands | | |within 20 days. | | | | | | | |Netherlands Independence- | | |King of Spain Phillip II declared William of Orange an outlaw. | | |December 1580 William of Orange publicly denounced Phillip as a Heathen and tyrant| | |and should not be obeyed. | | |Known as The Apology. | | |Peace of Westphalia in 1648 – Netherlands is fully recognized | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |England and Spain 1553-1603 | | |[pic] | | | | | |Jane Grey (granddaughter to Henry), 3rd Queen | | | | | | | | | | | |Mary I – reign lasted 5 years | | |Edward VI died. | | |Lady Jane Grey tried to ascend to throne. | | |Mary Tudor was the rightful heir. Grey-9 days Queen then beheaded. | | |Mary marries Prince Philip II of Spain. Mary | | |Had Parliament repeal the Protestant laws. Mary | | |Decreed all of England Catholic, burned Protestant leaders at the stake. | | |Dies 1558 | | | | |The Compromise: A solemn pledge to resist the |Elizabeth I – takes throne 1558 | |decrees of Trent and the Inquisition. |Daughter of Henry and half sister to Mary. | | |Advisor William Cecil. | |Passed laws for religious toleration | | | | | |Act of Supremacy 1559- Repealing all anti-Protestant legislation of Mary Tudor. | | | | | |Phillip II seeks marriage with Elizabeth. | | |Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots seeks England throne. | | |Supporters claim Elizabeth is illegitimate. | | |Queen of Scots is the granddaughter to Henry the VIII’s sister Margaret. | |Raised French and Catholic. | | | | | |Deterioration of Relation with Spain | | |Spanish Duke of Alba (1547)- marched troops into the Netherlands; England sees | | |this as a threat due its close proximity to England. | | |Elizabeth allows pirating of Spanish vessels. | | | | |Mary Queen of Scots | | |Eli zabeth executes Mary Queen of Scotts (second cousin) for plotting against the | | |crown. | | |Mary’s husband is killed by her lover, who is acquitted, and then marries Mary. | | |This causes outrage from her people. | | |Mary surrenders her throne to her one year old son James VI, who later becomes | | |Elizabeth’s heir to throne. | |The pope authorize Spain to invade England for the killing of Mary who was their | | |hope to turn England Catholic | | | | | |The Armanda | | |May 30 1587 -130 ships with 25,000 sailors sent to invade England. | | |Spain wanted the ships to dock in France before continuing the invasion. | | |France prohibits the ships from leaving and a fog roles in around the channel. | | |England has advantage and wins. | | | | |Thirty Year War | | |Preconditions for War | | |Germany = Holly Rome | | |Germany consists of 360 autonomous entities. | | |Each had its own tolls, taxes, coins and religion, making it difficult to travel | | |and do busine ss | | | | |Four Periods of War- | | |Bohemian (1618-1625) Swedish (1630-1635) | | |Danish (1625-1629) Swedish-French (1635-1648) | | | | | |Bohemian Period- | | |Ferdinand ascends to the throne and wants to return the region to Catholicism. | | |He revokes the religious freedoms of the Bohemian Protestants. | | | | | |Defenestration of Prague- Protestant nobility in Prague throw Ferdinand III’s | | |regents out of window in reaction to the revoke of religious freedoms. They did | | |not die, landed on manure which cushioned their fall. | | | | |Ferdinand was managed to subdue the Protestants and re-Catholicize Bohemian | | | | | |Danish Period- (1625-1629) | | |Lutheran King Christian IV of Demark picks up Protestant banner-invades Germany | | |and loses. | | |Ferdinand attacks Demark and breaks Protestant resistance. | | |Causes fear among all Protestants. | | | | | |Edict of Restitution in 1629- Calvinism is illegal and orders the return of all | | |church lands a cquired by the Lutherans. | | | | | | | |The Swedish Periods (1630-1635) | | |Gustavus Adolphus king of Sweden | | |Was a unified Lutheran nation, bankrolled by France, an wished to keep the | | |Habsburg armies tied down in Germany. | | |Adolphus won several battles due to a lighter army and better weapons. | | |Adolphus is killed on the battlefield. | | | | |Peace of Prague in 1635- majority of the Protestants states reached a compromise | | |with Ferdinand, barring the Swedes | | | | | |Peace of Prague plunged them into the fourth war. | | | | | |The Swedish-French Period (1635-1648) | | |The French join the war in 1635. | | |Dragged on for 13 years with Spanish, French and Swedish soldiers looting Germany. | | | | |About 1/3 of the German population died as a direct result of the war. | | | | | |Treaty of Westphalia- | | | | | |The Treaty of Westphalia 1648 -brought all hostilities within the Holy Roman | | |Empire to an end. Ended Edict of Restitution and reasserted the Peace of Augsburg,| | |which allows each ruler to determine its religion. | | | | | |German princes become supreme over their principalities. | Summary: From Martin Luther’s death in 1546 until the middle of the seventeenth century, European life was dominated by religiously and politically inspired violence. France descended into nearly 50 years of civil war before emerging with a united monarchy under the terms of the Edict of Nantes in 1598. Spain escaped civil strife and remained firmly Catholic. Spain’s American empire provided immense wealth, but Spain failed to subdue Protestant nationalism in the Netherlands and suffered defeat of its Armada naval fleet at the hands of the English. As a result, Spain’s position in international affairs declined. Unlike the French, the English managed to avoid civil war under the inspired leadership of Queen Elizabeth I. In Germany, the original center of the Reformation, Lutherans and Catholics had come to tolerate each other. But in the early seventeenth century the temporary compromises collapsed. The resulting free-for-all, known as the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648), consumed much of Europe’s energies until it was resolved in the Peace of Westphalia. ———————– Elizabeth I 4th, Queen Mary I 2nd, Queen Edward VI 1st, King Henry VIII King How to cite Western Heritage 8th Edition, Essay examples

Should Public Education be Terminated

Introduction Education has long been termed as the universal â€Å"key to success†. This is attributed to the fact that it is only through a good education that we equip ourselves with the best skills both mentally and physically so as to yield positive results in our journey for success.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Should Public Education be Terminated? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, education without direction is not effective and as such, it is of equal importance that one understands their strength and weaknesses in order to balance them so as to achieve the best results in all their endeavors. In his article, â€Å"Against School†, Taylor Gatto argues that we should get rid of compulsory schooling. He proposes that students should be left to manage their own learning affairs. To this effect, an analysis of public schools is in order. Through this discussion, leaning theories in s upport of public schools shall be mentioned. The factors that contributed positively towards the learning process in public schools shall also be outlined, and those that act as hindrances highlighted. In addition, the advantages of learning from a public school as compared to home schooling shall be conveyed. By critically reviewing these aspects, a logical argument as to why public schools should remain in place and get more support shall be presented. Arguments for public schools Getting an education is very important in today’s society. According to Gatto, that does not necessitate the presence of learning institutions. This is because, there are various many avenues through which one can get an education. However, school settings have been very instrumental in ensuring that students get the best skills that can be applied in the current business environment. Schools provide educational programs consisting of subjects that impart general knowledge and development to the s tudents in terms of rational thinking and intellectual capabilities. In as much as home schooling may seem appealing to Gatto, it does not consider the impact of interaction and competition to the future of the student. School settings are characterized by peer groups, high competition and are very interactive. From these aspects, students are able learn the value of team work, how to cope in competitive times, how to strategize, apply the available resources to the maximum and how to interact (respect and social ethics) with different people. In the article, Gatto is convinced that public schools are full of boredom. However the same applies in all educational settings (including home based schooling).Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The ability to find something interesting or entertaining depends on an individual. In almost all other subjects the teachers require students to read a nd write from the textbooks and most of them hate it. Unlike home schooling, public schools offer a variety of subjects for students to choose from. As such, students always have the options to choose subjects that are interactive or those that they prefer. This is because it provides the students with a valuable combination of learning experiences that constitute to an eternity of intellectual development. This initiative ensures that students are instilled with knowledge on critical thinking, effective communication and at the same time how to interact and perceive human experiences. This helps us understand our responsibilities to ourselves, our peers and the community at large. According to statistics provided by the government about public schools, students are able to cope with life challenges well than those who underwent home schooling. I under went the same learning procedures as most of my peers. I graduated from high school with a high score and was among the best student s in my school. This was because of the support I received from school. My parents always monitored my performance and at times assisted me where they could. I also participated in sports (soccer) and was a member of the debates club in my school. These activities boost one’s confidence and interactive skills which are pivotal in any area of specialty. I have come to realize that life in itself is a lesson worth learning from. Every experience that we go through no matter the magnitude, has an impact on our future and can as well change and improve the way we perceive things. From my own experiences, I believe now more than ever that a habit is in deed a disease therefore if you develop a learning culture from an early age it gradually consumes you and become part of you. This is a trait that I have been proud of and will forever be grateful to those who helped me nature it. It has made me a better person with the ability to analyze and evaluate situations in a bid to make a difference in this world. Arguably, a school setting is one of the most important avenue through which you can experience, experiment, observe and analyze different situations. Over the years researchers have developed theories and assumptions on how the brain works as per processing information and learning. As a result they have made it possible for teachers to identify and divide students according to their different intellectual capabilities and learning preferences.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Should Public Education be Terminated? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Carol S. Dweck, (PhD) people with a fixed mindset often believe in the basic intelligence that they are born with. They often doubt their abilities because their minds cannot perceive beyond what they believe they can manage and as such they lack the motivation to try harder because they are afraid to loose. On the other hand thos e with a growth mindset perceive challenges as an opportunity to prove and test their mental capabilities. As human beings we are different in our own special ways and as such we vary in intelligence as well as mannerisms. Some are slow learners and others fast. When learning in such a diversified environment, students are able to challenge and push themselves to the limits. In addition, those lacking in some attributes are motivated and encouraged by their peers through group discussions and other forms of assistance. Bandura’s social learning theory proposes that people often acquire their social skills through observation, imitation and modeling. He states that in as much as we acquire intellect through class work, the social skills that we have are learnt from other people. This means that the more people we interact with, the better our social skills. Public schools are filled with students from different backgrounds and therefore provide a great field to learn how diffe rent people behave in various situations. Finally, public schools are operated and managed by rules and procedures. The presence of these rules and procedures help students appreciate and respect organization, planning and discipline. These attributes are of great significance to the successful execution of any job. Conclusion Learning is a process that last through our lifetime and has its foundation on socialization. From this discussion, it is evident that public schools are the best places to learn from. What good is an education if it cannot be applied due to social discord? As such, they should be appreciated and supported if we are to have a sane future. This essay on Should Public Education be Terminated? was written and submitted by user Mayson Yang to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Jean

Jean Jean-franà §ois Lyotard andRichard M . Rorty Essay â€Å"There are no hard distinctions between what is real and what is unreal, nor between what is true and what is false. A thing is not necessarily either true or false; it can be both true and false.† ― Harold Pinter Knowledge is and will be produced in order to be sold, it is and will be consumed in order to be valorised in a new production: in both cases, the goal is exchange. Jean-Francois Lyotard The most thought-provoking thing in our thought-provoking time is that we are still not thinking. Martin Heidegger There is nothing deep down inside us except what we have put there ourselves. Richard Rorty The difference between people and ideas is... only superficial. Richard Rorty â€Å"My sense of the holy is bound up with the hope that some day my remote descendants will live in a global civilization in which love is pretty much the only law.† ― Richard M. Rorty â€Å"What makes us moral beings is that...there are some acts we believe we ought to die rather than commit...But now suppose that one has in fact done one of the things one could not have imagined doing, and finds that one is still alive. At that point, one's choices are suicide, a life of bottomless self-disgust, and an attempt to live so as never to do such a thing again. Dewey recommends the third choice.† ― Richard M. Rorty I shall call modern the art which devotes it little technical expertise †¦ to present the fact that the unpresentable exists. Lyotard, Jean-Franà §ois. A self does not amount to much, but no self is an island; each exists in a

Definition and Examples of Universal Grammar

Definition and Examples of Universal Grammar Universal grammar is the theoretical or hypothetical system of categories, operations, and principles shared by all human languages and considered to be innate. Since the 1980s, the term has often been capitalized.  The term is also known as  Universal Grammar Theory. Linguist  Noam Chomsky  explained,  [U]niversal grammar is taken to be the set of properties, conditions, or whatever that constitute the initial state of the language learner, hence the basis on which knowledge of a language develops. (Rules and Representations. Columbia University Press, 1980) The concept is connected to the ability  of  children to be able to learn their native language. Generative grammarians  believe that the human species evolved a genetically  universal grammar  common to all peoples and that the variability in modern languages is basically on the surface only, wrote  Michael Tomasello. (Constructing a Language: A Usage-Based Theory of Language Acquisition. Harvard University Press, 2003) And Stephen Pinker elaborates thusly: In cracking the code of language...childrens minds must be constrained to pick out just the right kinds of generalizations from the  speech  around them....It is this line of reasoning that led Noam Chomsky to propose that  language acquisition  in children is the key to understanding the nature of  language,  and that children must be equipped with an innate  Universal Grammar: a set of plans for the grammatical machinery that powers all human languages. This idea sounds more controversial than it is (or at least more controversial than it should be) because the logic of  induction  mandates that children make  some  assumptions about how language works in order for them to succeed at learning a language at all. The only real controversy is what these assumptions consist of: a blueprint for a specific kind of rule system, a set of abstract principles, or a mechanism for finding simple patterns (which might also be used in learning things other than language). ( The Stuff of Thought. Viking, 2007) Universal grammar is not  to be confused with universal language, noted Elena Lombardi, or with the  deep structure of language, or even with grammar itself (The Syntax of Desire, 2007).  As Chomsky has observed, [U]niversal grammar is not  a grammar, but rather a theory of grammars, a kind of metatheory or schematism for grammar (Language and Responsibility, 1979). History and Background The concept of a  universal grammar  (UG) has been traced to the observation of Roger Bacon, a 13th-century Franciscan friar, and philosopher, that all languages are built upon a common grammar. The expression was popularized in the 1950s and 1960s by Chomsky and other linguists. Components that are considered to be universal include the notion that words can be classified into different groups, such as being nouns or verbs and that sentences follow a particular structure. Sentence structures may be different between languages, but each language has some kind of framework so that speakers can understand each other vs. speaking gibberish. Grammar rules, borrowed words, or idioms of a particular language by definition are not universal grammar. Challenges and Criticisms Of course, any theory in an academic setting will have challenges, comments, and criticisms by others in the field; such as it is with peer review and the academic world, where people build on the body of knowledge through writing academic papers and publishing their opinions. Swarthmore College linguist K. David Harrison noted in The Economist,  I and many fellow linguists would estimate that we only have a detailed scientific description of something like 10% to 15% of the worlds languages, and for 85% we have no real documentation at all. Thus it seems premature to begin constructing grand theories of universal grammar. If we want to understand universals, we must first know the particulars. (Seven Questions for K. David Harrison. Nov. 23, 2010) And Jeff Mielke finds some aspects of  universal  grammar theory to be illogical: [T]he  phonetic  motivation for  Universal Grammar is extremely  weak. Perhaps the most compelling case that can be made is that phonetics, like  semantics, is part of the grammar and that there is an implicit assumption that if  the syntax  is rooted in Universal Grammar, the rest should be too. Most of the evidence for UG is not related to  phonology, and phonology has more of a guilt-by-association status with respect to innateness. (The Emergence of Distinctive Features. Oxford University Press, 2008) Iain McGilchrist disagrees with Pinkner and took the side of children learning a language just through imitation, which is a behaviorist approach, as opposed to the Chomsky theory of the poverty of the stimulus:   [I]t is uncontroversial that the existence of a universal grammar such as Chomsky conceived it is highly debatable. It remains remarkably speculative 50 years after he posited it, and is disputed by many important names in the field of linguistics. And some of the facts are hard to square with it. Languages across the world, it turns out, use a very wide variety of syntax to structure sentences. But more importantly, the theory of universal grammar is not convincingly compatible with the process revealed by developmental psychology, whereby children actually acquire language in the real world. Children certainly evince a remarkable ability to grasp spontaneously the conceptual and psycholinguistic shapes of speech, but they do so in a far more holistic, than analytic, way. They are astonishingly good imitators- note, not copying machines, but imitators. (The Master and His Emissary: The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World. Yale University Press, 2009)

Lesson plan Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Lesson plan - Case Study Example Day 1 With the use of a self-regulated strategy, the tutor should let Rodney draft a sentence that will be based on what he is interested. This sentence will not be corrected immediately, but instead used as a specimen for spelling, punctuation, and oral usage. In this phase, Rodney is being given the freedom to choose what he loves and feels comfortable with; thus, helping create a conducive atmosphere that builds his confidence in the tutor. This will reduce shyness and encourage him to participate fully. This falls under the first guideline of the UDL where a student’s perception is taken into consideration, and with Rodney being a computer fan and one who is used to having his freedom. His freedom will still be maintained and his perception of things from such an angle considered. Therefore, the first day will act as an introduction day to simple writing and reading where the student is only exposed to what he is used to as he is prepared to be introduced to a new strange environment in terms of vocabulary. Day 2 For proper understanding to be obtained on any given written material; a reader must be fluent, which is necessary for the second day. This can only be achieved by having Rodney read a given portion of a book continuously to help him become conversant with the words in writing, how they are pronounced, and their meaning. Using Thunder Rose as the material, introduce the first six pages then stop and ask Rodney what he thinks has happened in the story and tell him to write it down in his T-chart (Read Write Think, paragraph, 11). Deal with the six pages that day and note if with conversancy, Rodney is able to regain confidence and thus improve on his self-esteem where he will then be able to read out aloud before his fellow classmates. Marzano’s Strategies The objectives can only be achieved if one utilizes Marzano’s strategy of Reinforcing Effort & Providing Recognition. This is simply because the strategy will make Rodney feel appreciated, and for a child whose parents are never around recognition is something that he will receive with much joy (Resourcefortechers.pbworks.com, pg. 15). Therefore, the strategy will help improve his reading skills not to mention help boost interaction between him and his tutor thus ensuring that his participation is high. He will be given prizes and praised when he shows progress and development; the prizes would include; Free stationeries Candies Computer games As a tutor one can also utilize the Non-linguistic representation where the student can try and act out some of his writings (Resourcefortechers.pbworks.com, pg. 19). For example, if it is a sentence he uses actions and body movements to get the point across or does as the given character in the story he read is said to do and this will help improve his memory of that given reading. This type of strategy is of great use to every student, no matter the reading and writing ability since it helps the brain improve on remembering that activity. UDL Guidelines The two strategies aim at improving self-esteem and participation, to achieve the objectives, this engagement must be present. This is to say that the tutor knowing that Rodney likes spending time alone and not socializing, he or she can improve this situation by coming up with activities that promote socializing and engaging with friends be it through a game or just sharing a story during the afternoon session. Therefore, such a tutor will be utilizing the 3rd guideline under UDL that talks of recruiting interest and sustaining

Belle Gunness-A Female Serial Killer Research Paper

Belle Gunness-A Female Serial Killer - Research Paper Example Little is known of the early life of Gunness, and reports that do exist are conflicted. Some report that Belle Gunness was born Bella Poulsdatter in Trondhjeim, Norway (Geringer). Other reports have Belle Gunness born as Brynhild Poulsdatter Storset in Selbu, Norway (Gibson 36). Most biographers, according to author Dirk Cameron Gibson, agree that her date of birth was November 11, 1859, in or around Lake Selbu, Norway, as well as the fact that she was raised without much money (36). It is also agreed that Belle, then Bella, emigrated from Norway to the United States between 1881 and 1884 by courtesy of her elder sister, who sent her money for passage as well as offered her houseroom upon her arrival in Illinois (36). It does appear that the first few years in America were happy ones. She Americanized her name to Belle and married her first husband, Mads Sorenson, along with bearing him four children, with only two living past infancy (Jones 157). The couple owned a candy store, but the popular saying goes that â€Å"it only turned a profit after it burned to the ground† (Jones 158). In addition, two of the houses the couple owned also burned (Geringer). All carried insurance policies, which the couple collected, as the insurance companies were never able to find exactly what started the fires (Jones 158). They were also unable to prove that the fires had been started intentionally (Jones 158). Gunness once again had reason to collect insurance in 1900. Mads Sorenson suddenly died on July 30, 1900 in a â€Å"convulsive agony† (Schechter 177). When he was examined by the coroner, he was found to have an enlarged heart, which was noted as his cause of death (Jones 158). Before the cash was finished being counted into her hands, Belle took the insurance money of $8,500 and moved to La Porte, Indiana, with her three children (Geringer). Once in La Porte, it was not long before love, or at least another husband, found

Adverse Drug Reaction Reporting: a Novel Approach

Adverse Drug Reaction Reporting: a Novel Approach ADVERSE DRUG REACTION REPORTING, A NOVEL APPROACH Author: Abdul Latif Sheikh*, Ale Zehra*, Salwa Zubair*, Muhammad Zeeshan Khan* ABSTRACT: Globally adverse drug reactions (ADRs) has major contribution in public health cost mortality ratio. Therefore it’s a crucial time for an ongoing ADR-monitoring and new easy advance reporting program which provides benefits to the health care professionals patients. The aim of hosting a ADRs reporting modern tactic by the Department of Pharmacy Services,Aga Khan University Hospital ,Karachi,Pakistan(AKUH)(a tertiary care setup), is to perceive the outcome of spontaneous reporting of ADRs through call in name of Hot line service its awareness campaign. In addition to manual yellow form and online reporting system,AKUH has launched the program with ADR’s awareness session, memorandum sent through mail small spot quiz with ADRs card to all Doctors, Nurses Pharmacists. The department has fixed its one telephone line for voluntarily reporting of ADRs. Total 08 awareness session has been taken at different forum of AKUH including its associated secondary hospital from Au gust to December with 274 participants while 396 professionals participated in spot quiz activity. On weekly basis ADR’s awareness memo mail was sent to all hospital professionals and ADRs flyers distributed to the wards. Impact of 05 month activity has assessed for its achievement or not. Reporting of ADRs was increase(09%) from 43 to 52 in count with contribution of 29 ADRs, reported via hot line service while the awareness campaign boosted the professionals to report ADRs as pharmacist participation appeared to be increased from 35% to 64%. However different countries and organizations have different technologies for reporting ADRs but by adoption of such a type of modern smart approach which is easy for professionals to report ADRs awareness compaign of ADRs enhance the professional to report ADRs for positive patient out comes safety. Key word: Report ADR through call, Novel technology in ADR reporting, ADRs awareness compaign Introduction: Adverse drug reactions (ADRs), occurs at normal doses (used for prophylaxis, diagnosis, or therapy of disease, or for the modification of physiologic function), have a considerable adverse impact on the health of the population lead to contribution in health care costs due to hospital admissions (approx.5-6%), suggested the enormous direct and indirect social and economic costs for a society.2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7,14, 15,16,17,18. Globally the burden of ADRs is high, accounting for considerable morbidity, mortality and extra cost28 Thalidomide is the first drug whose ADRs was reported in 196019, estimated that 5000-6000 new born infants were effected by drug with characteristic of thalidomide-induced phocomelia, limb defects, often accompanied by deformities of internal organs20,21. Due to reporting of its adverse reaction, it was withdrawn from the world market in late 1961, remaining available only for strictly defined research purposes, 22diverted the attention of health caregiver to chore on reporting system of adverse drug reaction. ADR monitoring or a reduction in their frequency simply cannot happen until and unless they are reported in an efficient and timely manner. Spontaneous reporting is most accessible and easiest method for ADR reporting. WHO has implemented two methods in its public health program, cohort event monitoring (CEM) and targeted spontaneous reporting (TSR). CEM encompasses all drug related issues including poor quality, drug interactions, storage and medication errors23 while in TSR health professionals in specific setting (e.g. patients on drug resistant infection) reports about drug related issues, safety.24 Spontaneous reporting is helpful but is usually prone to under reporting and poor quality reports 25Other methods include intensive monitoring (resource and time consuming)26, chart review (prospective and retrospective), FDA MEDWATCH reporting. One of the most common method is yellow card system which was started 30 years before but the main problem associated with it is under reporting (less than 10%)27 Due to remarkable burden of ADRs globally, 28, 42measures are needed to reduce the frequency of ADRs, healthcare costs and readmissions34, 35and to improve the benefit harm ratio of drug. Fatal ADRs appear to be the 4th or 6th leading cause of death31; it can be reduced by making changes in systems for preventing and detecting adverse drug event(ADEs)29. A study indicates that a computer alert system prevented ADRs which were otherwise not recognizeable29.WHO database contains over 2.5 million case report analysis of this data32 ( 70% were known ADRs ,17% signals requiring further evaluation)33 .Spontaneous reporting is the most common method used in pharmacovigilance and most effective in generating signals on new or rear adverse drug reactions28. Reduction in ADRs will occur only if ADRs are properly reported and the patterns can be studied to identify the causes of ADRs, which will in the end, help to reduce their occurrence.36 Pakistan has been plagued with many health related problems, including ADRs. In Lahore, on Jan- 2012, at least 125 patients died due to an adverse drug reaction(ADRs) due to one of the cardiac medicine, which was adulterated with an antimalarial agent, found on investigation.37, 38However laws for monitoring and forms for reporting ADRs exist in Pakistan but there is no National ADR database.39 In Pakistan, medicines are used on a large scale, but still ADRs reporting is a little known concept. Ministry of health (MOH) has been involved in developing an ADR program, but requires major improvements; widespread implementation being a critical factor. Majority of the hospitals have no ADRs reporting system, others are reporting ADRs restricted to some drugs, and only few hospitals have a proper established ADRs reporting system40. The Aga Khan University Hospital (AKUH), being the premier hospital of Pakistan, also has an established ADRs program, which includes utilizing various technologies to report ADRs; Yellow cards, online reporting, and a recently established ADR reporting hotline service (where reports can be made via telephones). Having multiple technologies available to healthcare professionals to report ADRs makes the task easy and ultimately results in improved patient care.41 Methodology: To enhance the ADRs reporting system in an easiest more efficient way, The Department of Pharmacy services-AKUH, in addition to yellow card online ADRs reporting, tune up to a new spontaneous service in name of ADRs hot line service in which pharmacy fix its one telephone extension for receiving ADRs reporting calls. Caller is the reporting person but the login of ADRs in system is the responsibility of pharmacy by asking the information of about patient’s Medical record number, time date of reaction, suspected drug nature of reaction. Program started from 5th August, 2013 with adoption of following strategies. Aware session at different forum of doctors, pharmacists nurses, distribution of ADRs flyers to different unit of ward ADRs cards inform them about the importance outcomes of ADRs reporting. By taking a small spot quiz of ADRs (policies, how to login, and its outcome e.t.c) to different staff randomly give small prizes for their appreciation encouragement. On weekly basis advertise through mail, sent to all hospital’s professional with different theme of ADRs. Acknowledged with appreciation words to those user who report the ADRs through hot line service for future courage. Collect the monthly data of ADRs reporting count with contribution of hot line service. At end of month Calculate how much this service was affective? Initially the data of 05 month activity was collected to evaluate impact of new services. Table:01 Table:02 Table:03 Result: ADRs reporting trend: PRE ADRs hot line services: Total voluntarily ADR reported = 43 Graph:01 Post ADRs Hot line Service: Total voluntarily ADR reported including Hot line service= 52 Total ADR via Hot line service = 29 Graph:02 # of ADRs Reported Doctor, Nurses Pharmacists. Pre ADRs Hot line service: Graph:03 Post ADRs Hot line service: Graph:04 Discussion: New methodologies in any set up always helpful for its goal achievement. In a current scenario, along with yellow card online reporting system, The Department of Pharmacy Services-AKUH introduces a new spontaneous method of ADRs reporting in name of ADRs Hot Line Service. Program( hot line service its awareness compaign) was started on 5th August -2013 to all hospital’s Doctors, Nurses Pharmacists. Program features includes awareness session,spot quiz, memo through mail. Pre post service comparison indicate the increased in quantity of voluntarily reporting ADRs, from 43 to 52 ( as shown in graph 01 02).Increase in 09% ADRs reporting status indicate that service along with campaign was effective but still need continuous effort in field of ADR reporting technologies34,35. Reporting via manual yellow card has almost zero ( pre post evaluation showed zero reporting)which may be due to presence of online reporting as it is easy convenient as compare to yellow card while gl obally yellow card reporting is also underreporting27. Globally the burden of ADR28, 42 alarm each health care setup to concentrate its way of reporting methodology so as large amount of ADR would be reported. Total reporting trend through hot line service in around 05 month campaign was 29 including from its associated secondary hospitals (06 ADRs reported by Secondary hospital’s doctors Pharmacist) while before campaign there was zero reporting from there. Awareness sessions spot quiz campaign (as shown in table 01 02) over there boost the professionals to report the ADRs for future patient safety. As the campaign also include weekly memo (importance of ADR reporting new service) mail sent to to all professionals, act as enhancement factor for reporting. Total 20 memos have been mailed in 140 days program assesment as shown in table 03. Highest number of total ADRs has been reported in month of September, 2013 (shown in graph 02) i.e 19 its was 2nd month of campaign while least number has been reported in month of November i.e only 2 which may be due to non occurrence of ADRs. Reporting via hot line service was seem to be high in month of September also (as shown in graph 02) while moderate in month of October December (as shown in graph 02) but over all contribution of hot line service in ADRs reporting was good satisficatory certified program to continue in future for patient safety. Though the doctors, pharmacist nurses have an equal accountability to report ADRs but Pharmacist have an vital role in direct patient care through counseling on ADRs, identification and documentation in the patient’s medical record of high-risk patients43 thus in current adopted approach contribution of Pharmacist to report ADR appeared to be high as compare to the pre awareness campaign indicate the positive outcome of compain. Reporting of ADRs is high in high income incoutries as compare to low income countries. As per World Health Organization,Pakistan stand among low income countries so there is need of development of such a smart approach for reporting ADRs its awareness for patient safety. Conclusion: ADRs have a major contribution in death mortality so there is need to continue effort in developing an easy and smart technology like spontaneous reporting of ADRs through call( ADRs hot line service) its awareness comapign seems to be very effective boosting professionals . References: Biswas, P., Pharmacovigilance in Asia. J Pharmacol Pharmacother. 4(Suppl1): p. S7-S19. Goettler, M., S. Schneeweiss, and J. Hasford, Adverse drug reaction monitoringcost and benefit considerations. Part II: cost and preventability of adverse drug reactions leading to hospital admission. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf, 1997. 6 Suppl 3: p. S79-90. Einarson, T.R., Drug-related hospital admissions. Ann Pharmacother, 1993. 27(7-8): p. 832-40. Muehlberger, N., S. Schneeweiss, and J. Hasford, Adverse drug reaction monitoringcost and benefit considerations. Part I: frequency of adverse drug reactions causing hospital admissions. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf, 1997. 6 Suppl 3: p. S71-7. Lazarou, J., B.H. Pomeranz, and P.N. Corey, Incidence of adverse drug reactions in hospitalized patients: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. JAMA, 1998. 279(15): p. 1200-5. S., O., The role of the WHO program on International Drug Monitoring in coordinating worldwide drug safety efforts. Drug Saf 19, 1998: p. 1–10. Rawlins, M.D., Clinical pharmacology. Adverse reactions to drugs. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed), 1981. 282 : p. 974-6. Edwards, I.R. and J.K. Aronson, Adverse drug reactions: definitions, diagnosis, and management. Lancet, 2000. 356: p. 1255-9. Bandekar, M.S., S.R. Anwikar, and N.A. Kshirsagar, Quality check of spontaneous adverse drug reaction reporting forms of different countries. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 19(11): p. 1181-5. Munir Pirmohamed, S.J., Shaun Meakin, Chris Green, Andrew K Scott,Thomas J Walley,Keith Farrar,B Kevin Park,Alasdair M Breckenridge., Adverse drug reactions as cause of admission to hospital: prospective analysis of 18 820 patients. BMJ 2004. 329: p. 15-19. Mellin GW, K.M., The saga of thalidomide (concluded). . N Engl J Med 1962. 24: p. 1238-44. V, G., Thalidomide in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) patients. A review of safety considerations. Drug Saf, 1992. 7(2): p. 116-34. DArcy PF, G.J., Thalidomide revisited. . Adverse Drug React Toxicol Rev 1994. 13: p. 65-76. Stephanie Tseng, G.P., Kenneth Washenik, Miriam Keltz Pomeranz, Jerome L Shupack., Rediscovering thalidomide: A review of its mechanism of action, side effects, and potential uses. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 1996. 35(6): p. 969-979. Pal, S.N., et al., WHO Strategy for Collecting Safety Data in Public Health Programmes: Complementing Spontaneous Reporting Systems. Drug Safety, 2013. 36(2): p. 75-81. WHO, A practical handbook on the pharmacovigilance of medicines used in the treatment of tuberculosis: enhancing the safety of the TB patient. 2012, 20 Avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland: WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication. Figueiras A, H.M., Polà ³nia J, et al., An Educational Intervention to Improve Physician Reporting of Adverse Drug Reactions: A Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial. JAMA, 2006. 296(9): p. 1086–1093. Bates DW, C.D., Laird N, et al., Incidence of adverse drug events and potential adverse drug events – implications for prevention. JAMA, 1995. 274: p. 307–311. Rawlins, M.D., Pharmacovigilance: paradise lost, regained or postponed? The William Withering Lecture 1994. J R Coll Physicians Lond, 1995. 29(1): p. 41-9. Al., G.J.e., Why Learn about Adverse Drug Reactions (ADR)? Am J Med, 2000. 109(2): p. 87-94. Davies, D.E.C., Emergency re-admissions to hospital due to adverse drug reactions within 1 year of the index admission. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 2010. Volume 70(Issue 5). Kass, B.L. Reducing and Preventing Adverse Drug Events To Decrease Hospital Costs. [cited; Available from: www.ahrq.gov/qual/aderia/aderia.htm. Bate, A., et al., A Bayesian neural network method for adverse drug reaction signal generation. Eur J Clin Pharmacol, 1998. 54(4): p. 315-21. AGENCIES, Drug regulation follows heart patient deaths., in Daily Dawn. 2012-03-12: Lahore, Pak. Saeed, A., Pakistan heart drugs: Lahore death toll reaches 100, in BBC News. 26 January 2012: Lahore, Pak. Jooma, P.D.R., Pakistan. Pharmaceutical Country Profile 2010, Health Ministry of Pakistan: Pakistan. P. 1-56. Al., G.e., adverse drug reaction reporting system at different hospitalsof lahore, pakistan an evaluation and patient outcome analysis. journal of applied pharmacy, 2013. 4(1): p. 713-719. AKUH Pharmacy newsletter, Sep 2013, Vol.23, 02. www.ahrq.gov/qual/aderia/aderia.htm www.worstpills.org/public/page.cfm?Op_id=4‎ Lazarou, Jason, Bruce H. Pomeranz, and Paul N. Corey. Incidence of adverse drug reactions in hospitalized patients.JAMA: the journal of the American Medical Association279.15 (1998): 1200-1205. Bate, Andrew, et al. A Bayesian neural network method for adverse drug reaction signal generation.European journal of clinical pharmacology54.4 (1998): 315-321. Evans, S. J. W., P. C. Waller, and S. Davis. Use of proportional reporting ratios (prrs) for signal generation from spontaneous adverse drug reaction reports.Pharmacoepidemiology and drug safety10.6 (2001): 483-486. Muehlberger N,Schneeweiss S,Hasford J. â€Å"Adverse drug reaction monitoringcost and benefit considerations. Part I: frequency of adverse drug reactions causing hospital admissions.† Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf.1997 Oct;6 Suppl 3:S71-7. Dr Emma C. Davies et al. â€Å"Emergency re-admissions to hospital due to adverse drug reactions within 1 year of the index admission†British Journal of Clinical pharmacologyvolume 70, Issue 5, Article first published online: 14 JUL 2010 Anthony R cox et al. â€Å"Assessing, managing and reporting Adverse drug reactions may better equip us to minimize medicines-related harm†, 2008 volume 18, issue-2/5 PIP Basic pharmacy skills Mar08 www.dawn.com/news/702090/drug-regulation-follows-heart-patient-deaths www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-16742832 WHO’s Pharmaceutical country profile: Pakistan. Gulamet al., 2013, â€Å"adverse drug reaction reporting system at different hospitalsof lahore, pakistan an evaluation and patient outcome analysis†, journal of applied pharmacy04(01): 713-719; January, 2013 AKUH Pharmacy newsletter, Sep 2013, Vol.23, 02 www.fda.gov/Drugs/developmentapprovalprocess/developmentresources/druginteractionslabeling/ucm114848.htm ASHP Guidelines on Adverse Drug Reaction Monitoring and Reporting, www.ashp.org.

Online Games Is Formative Way of Learning

Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment A research paper Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment A research paper Elizabeth Dunphy, EdD Commissioned by the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment, NCCA  © NCCA 2008 24 Merrion Square, Dublin 2 www. ncca. ie Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Contents Glossary 5 Introduction 6 Section 1: General background Purpose of the paper Assessment and curriculum The Irish context The practice context The legislative context Ethical IssuesTowards a definition of formative assessment Supporting learning and development 8 8 8 9 9 10 11 12 12 Section 2: The nature of early learning Characteristics of early learning The complexity of early learning Key theoretical constructs for assessment Ecological perspectives Socio-cultural perspectives Activity theory Children’s agency Children’s collaboration in learning Intersubjectivity and collaboration Childr en as co-constructors of knowledge Play as a context for formative assessment Emerging approaches to assessment Performance assessment and authentic assessment Summary 13 13 13 3 14 14 14 15 15 17 17 18 18 19 21 Section 3: What to assess in early learning The essentials of learning Dispositions A range of cognitive abilities Emotional well-being Self-concept and sociability Summary 22 22 22 23 23 24 24 Section 4: How to assess early learning A narrative approach to assessment of learning in early childhood Learning stories: A credit-focused approach A fully-contextualised account of learning Methods for collecting information on children’s learning Observing and empathising Conversations with children Clinical interviews Making sense of children’s learningSustaining learning and development through documentation Portfolios Summary 25 25 25 26 27 28 29 29 30 30 31 33 3 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Section 5: Assessment and the practitioner Professio nal knowledge Skills base Ethical considerations Manageability of assessment Tensions 34 34 34 35 35 36 Concluding comments 37 References 38 Table 1: Gardner’s understanding of human development and assessment and Shepard’s guiding principles of assessment 19 4 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Glossary Glossary Agency: Children are active in their own learning.Some ways in which they display their agency is by taking the initiative in learning situations, by observing and becoming involved in ongoing events, or by initiating conversations with others. Authentic assessment: Assessing children on tasks that are part of their ordinary everyday experiences in their early education and care settings. Co-construction: This occurs when children and/or practitioners construct meaning and knowledge about the world together in interaction. Collaborative learning: This is learning that takes place in social contexts and using the resources of the environment.Form ative assessment: This is assessment that informs teaching and learning. It is concerned with the shortterm collection and use of evidence for the guidance of learning. Intersubjectivity: This is the mutual understanding achieved by people in communication. Meta-cognition: This refers to what children think about their own learning, thinking and remembering and how the act of thinking about these processes affect the ways in which children then go about intentionally learning, thinking and remembering. It is a process whereby children become aware of their own thought processes.Pedagogy of mutuality: This perspective recognises that both child and adult bring beliefs and ideas to the learning situation and that discussion and interaction are the means by which a shared frame of reference is established. This results in an exchange of understandings between the child and the practitioner. Pedagogical content knowledge: This is a form of professional understanding which brings togethe r content knowledge and knowledge about pedagogy. It is based on an understanding of how best to organise and present ideas and adapt them in response to the diverse interests and abilities of children.Performance assessment: Assessing children’s early learning and development through observing, recording, and evaluating children’s performance or work. Scaffolding: This refers to the practice of providing guidance and support to children as they move from one level of competence to another. It is a metaphor that is used to describe interactional support for children’s efforts. The assistance offered to the child is sensitive to and contingent on the amount of support needed. Schema: These are patterns of early repeatable behaviours which children engage in and which lead them through a process of co-ordination, to make generalisations.Socio-cultural theories: These are a family of theories that have arisen from the work of Vygotsky and which have in common their emphasis on the role that social and cultural factors play in children’s development and learning. Theory of mind: Children gradually acquire the understanding that other people can hold beliefs about the world that differ from what the child him/herself believes or appears to be true. Transformation of participation: From a socio-cultural perspective, children are seen as developing through a process of participating in activities of their communities, and in doing so their participation changes.They become progressively more expert through engagement in cultural practice and through social interactions that guide them in taking on new roles and responsibilities. 5 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Introduction This research paper, Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment responds to the questions – What’s the purpose of formative assessment in early childhood? What should we assess? How should we assess?The paper is one of four research papers commissioned by the NCCA to set out the theory trail behind the Framework for Early Learning1. This paper is being used to develop guidelines on assessment for inclusion in the Framework. While there are a number of different types and functions of assessment this paper focuses on formative assessment as this offers most potential in terms of assessing to support learning in the day-to-day interactions between adults and children in early childhood. Section 1 of the paper, General background explores the meaning of assessment and its relationship with teaching and learning.Though still very much an emerging area, what we know about how to support early learning and development through the formative assessment process has advanced somewhat in recent years. In many ways the advances in assessment practices in early childhood education and care mirror those in the field of assessment g enerally. In particular, the articulation of the interrelatedness between teaching, learning and assessment and the complexity of the relationships between these processes and curriculum is of as much importance to those concerned with early learning and development, as it is to those concerned with later stages of development.The term assessment, as applied in early childhood education and care, generally implies the intention to provide a rich picture of the ways in which children act, think and learn. In order to orient the discussion about assessment in early childhood education and care, the initial section of the paper outlines the general context in relation to the assessment of early learning and development. While a number of different reasons for assessing early learning and development can be identified, this paper focuses on using formative assessment to support teaching and learning.Section 2, The nature of early learning begins from the premise that in assessing early learning and development it is critical to acknowledge and take account of the nature of early learning and development. We know that in early childhood learning and development is rapid, episodic and holistic. It is also highly influenced by the extent of support that is available for that learning. The adults around the child, and the extent to which they can and do support early learning and development, are crucial elements in determining the extent of learning.Because of their stage of development, children’s abilities in some areas are not yet mature. Their verbal abilities are still emerging, and so assessment of learning and development is often through observation of, and inference from, the children’s actions and reactions in particular situations. It is also essential to acknowledge and take account of the fact that there are considerable cultural variations in children’s experiences. These will result in differences in the course and content of early learning and development. They may also result in considerable differences in how children learn and in how they display their learning.It is important to focus on the breadth of children’s early learning and development. Section 3, What to assess in early learning focuses on assessing children’s dispositions, well-being, cognitive abilities and self-concept and sociability. Assessment in early childhood is shaped by how children from birth to six years learn and develop. A narrative approach offers great potential for making assessment of early learning visible. Documentation of evidence of early learning and development in various ways, using a variety of media and tools, is important for both reflecting on and communicating about children’s achievements.There appears to be general agreement that assessment of early learning and development should be informal, carried out over time, and in the context of the child’s interactions with materials, objects and other people. It should also be authentic in the sense that it should take place in real-life contexts where it is embedded in tasks that children see as significant, meaningful and worthwhile. Informal assessments, carried out as children engage in experiences they see as relevant and meaningful, are likely to produce the best assessments of early learning and development.These issues are considered in Section 4, How to assess early learning. 1 The Framework for Early Learning was renamed Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework in 2009. 6 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 5, Assessment and the practitioner discusses the need for professional development for early childhood practitioners. Good assessment practice requires understanding about how children learn and develop, the process of assessment, and skills to manageably assess in ways that respect children and that are e thically sound.The concluding comments clarify and summarise the key messages across the paper. Key points arising from the discussion are presented in shaded boxes throughout the paper. Some of these points relate to key messages arising from theory and research while others are aspirational. 7 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 1: General background This section of the paper explores what is meant by assessment in early childhood and discusses its relationship with teaching and learning.Informed by this, a definition of formative assessment is presented. The section concludes by describing the current practice and legislative context in which assessment takes place in Ireland. Purpose of the paper The purpose of this paper is to review issues related to formative assessment of early learning. The findings of the paper will be used to support the development of the assessment guidelines in the Framework for Early Learning2. The paper responds to questions related to the what, why and how of formative assessment in early childhood. Assessment and curriculumWays of assessing children’s learning and development cannot be separated from features of the curriculum (for example, the degree of formality or informality that characterises it), and from views of learners and learning which are embodied in that curriculum. Kelly (1992) identifies the interrelating of curriculum and assessment as †¦ a highly complex and sophisticated matter (p. 16). He argues that the interplay of one with the other is crucial in determining the effectiveness of either. The NCCA is developing a curriculum framework for children between the ages of birth and six years.The Framework embraces a particular view of the child, of learning and of how that learning may be celebrated and extended. In the Framework for Early Learning, learning is presented in four broad and complementary theme s:  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Well-being  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Identity and Belonging  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Communicating  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Exploring and Thinking. Some of the principles related to how children develop and learn which underpin the Framework include the following:  ¦Ã‚ ¦ holistic learning and development  ¦Ã‚ ¦ active learning  ¦Ã‚ ¦ play and first-hand experiences  ¦Ã‚ ¦ relevant and meaningful experiences  ¦Ã‚ ¦ communication and language  ¦ a well-planned and well-resourced outdoor and indoor learning environment. It will be important to identify an approach to assessment that will help practitioners identify and support children’s learning as it relates to the Framework’s principles and themes. Assessment and teaching are now generally considered to be as much inseparable processes in early childhood as they are in any other period of life (Shepard, Kagan and Wurtz, 1998; Bowman et al. , 2001). We now know that children learn by building new understandings on those that they already have ( Wood, 1998).In order to support children’s learning then, practitioners first collect information about children’s well-being, identity and belonging, communication, and exploration and thinking. What children engage with, think, know, feel or can do are all of importance in the assessment process. Reflection on this information helps the practitioner to establish 2 As noted earlier, the Framework for Early Learning was renamed Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework in 2009. 8 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment ow best to advance children’s learning and development. Once this is established the practitioner is then in a position to plan worthwhile, interesting and challenging learning experiences to further progress learning. Clearly then, assessment in early childhood is not something that can be considered independent of either curriculum or learning. It is critica l that the assessment of early learning recognises the unique nature of development in early childhood. It is also critical that we learn from the experiences of countries with a longer history of appraising assessment practices and processes than we have here in Ireland.Working in the context of the United States, where there has been considerable interest in finding appropriate assessment formats for use by early childhood practitioners, Shepard et al. (1998, pp. 8-9) devised a set of principles to guide practice and policy for the assessment of children’s learning. These represented a synthesis of understandings in respect of the most appropriate approaches to assessment in early childhood and the authors advised that they should apply to any situation in which assessments are used to make decisions about children’s learning:  ¦Ã‚ ¦Assessments should bring about benefits for children.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Assessments should be tailored to a specific purpose and should be reli able, valid and fair for that purpose.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Assessment policies should be designed recognising that reliability and validity of assessments increases with children’s age.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Assessments should be age-appropriate in both content and the method of data collection.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Assessments should be linguistically appropriate, recognising that to some extent all assessments are measures of language.  ¦Ã‚ ¦Parents should be a valued source of assessment information, as well as an audience for assessment results. The Irish context The practice context Assessment in the early years of a child’s life can be viewed from a number of perspectives. David (2003) identifies three perspectives  ¦Ã‚ ¦ the day-to-day informal assessments made by the adults with whom the child comes in contact. In most cases these are early years practitioners who may or may not document such assessments.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ the physical assessments by paediatricians, public health nurses and family doc tors.These aim to identify any physical problems that may impede children’s progression and seek to alleviate them as much as possible.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ diagnostic assessments that can have a range of functions, including identifying children with special educational needs, and helping practitioners to support their learning more effectively. No single type of assessment can serve all of the purposes identified in the perspectives outlined above. Each perspective has a role to play, especially in the case of children with special needs where diagnostic assessments are of paramount importance.Babies, toddlers and young children may experience various types of assessments in early childhood. Some may occur frequently, others occasionally. Multi-agency and multi-disciplinary communication is a critical means by which information related to the child’s development and learning can be shared for the benefit of the child. It is imperative that practitioners in early childhood settin gs have access to any information that is of use in making sure learning opportunities in the setting are appropriate for each individual child.The practice of practitioners building on assessments carried out by other professionals such as therapists can be facilitated by significant levels of inter- and/or multidisciplinary teamwork. 9 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Where children spend some or all of their day in out-of-home settings the practitioners with whom they are in contact engage in ongoing assessment for supporting learning and development.Traditionally, observation is the primary method used in assessing children’s learning and development in the range of early education settings in Ireland. For instance, close observations of children’s play in a range of childcare services in Ireland provide the basis for learning and teaching stories (Brennan, 2004). Many practitio ners use checklists to record aspects of their observations. These are often used to record observations in relation to the assessment of children’s skills and understandings, particularly in the area of identifying children with special educational needs and in supporting their learning and development.In relation to their use of assessment practices to support children’s learning in curriculum areas, only about half of infant teachers who participated in Phase 1 of the Primary Curriculum Review (NCCA, 2005) reported that they used observation and about three-quarters reported using documentation. Infant teachers in primary schools also use a range of developmental and diagnostic assessments, for example, in the area of early literacy, to assess specific aspects of children’s development and learning. (See Section 4 for a more extensive discussion on observation as an assessment method. )Increasingly there is an awareness that children live different childhoods : their social, cultural, linguistic and ecological experiences and opportunities differ and all of this influences assessment. Practitioners who are in daily contact with children are in a good position to familiarise themselves with these diverse aspects of children’s lives and of their possibilities for early learning and development. Consequently, on a day-to-day basis, the practitioner’s own assessments are the ones that have the most potential in terms of planning for children’s learning and of making judgements regarding children’s progress.Using assessment for this purpose is the central focus of this paper. Key point A range of assessments are appropriate in assessing children’s learning. The focus of the assessment depends on its purpose. The central focus of this paper is on formative assessment where practitioners’ own assessments are used to support and plan for children’s learning. The legislative context There is a long history of informal assessment of children’s learning in Ireland. However, for various reasons early childhood practitioners now find it necessary to document learning in ways that were not general practice previously.Both legislative requirements and practitioners’ own desires to better understand early learning and how best to extend it, are to the fore in encouraging the documentation of information related to children’s early learning and development. In relation to young children attending primary schools, The Education Act (Department of Education and Science, 1998) requires principals and teachers to regularly evaluate students and periodically report the results of the evaluation to the students and their parents. The implications of this requirement for teachers and schools include  ¦ developing assessment procedures which provide an accurate account of children’s progress and achievement  ¦Ã‚ ¦ creating and maintaining records of childrenâ €™s progress and achievement while they are attending the school  ¦Ã‚ ¦ providing parents with assessment reports which contain accurate and clearly accessible information about their children’s progress and achievement (NCCA, 2007a, p. 95). The Equal Status Act (The Equality Authority, 2000) has implications for the assessment policy in early education settings.In particular, it requires settings to be aware of the effects of context, culture and language in assessing children’s learning and development. 10 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment The Education for Persons with Special Educational Needs Act (EPSEN) (Department of Health and Children, 2004) requires that where a child has or may have special educational needs an assessment of those needs should be carried out. With children not attending formal schooling this is the responsibility of the relevant health board.Where th e child is a student then the Act requires schools to identify when a child is not benefiting from the education programme on offer and to investigate the reasons behind this. The school, or in the case of a child not at school the relevant health board, is mandated to ensure that an individual education plan (IEP) for an appropriate education for the child is drawn up in consultation with the child’s parents. The Act outlines the statutory requirements for educational planning for children with special educational needs (SEN).It requires that a multi-disciplinary assessment be carried out in situations where it is considered that the child may have special educational needs. An IEP must then be prepared for each child identified as having such needs. Discussion and agreement regarding the abilities, skills and talents as well as the nature and degree of the child’s special educational needs, together with an analysis of how these needs affect the child’s learni ng and development is required. The plan must include these and must also specify goals for learning and development for the child over a period not exceeding ne year. It must also specify the supports that need to be put in place to enable the child to participate in and benefit from education. The Disability Act (Department of Health and Children, 2005) enables provision for the assessment of health and education needs for persons with disabilities, arising from their situation. The Act provides for access for people with disabilities to health and education services. In relation to educational needs, Part 2 Section 8 (9) states that where an assessment is applied for it must be carried out by or at the request of an assessment officer who then identifies the need for the provision of an educational service to the child, he or she shall, in case the child is enrolled in a school, refer the matter to the principal of that school†¦in any other case, refer the matter to the coun cil for the purposes of an assessment. The Child Care (Pre-School Services) (No 2) Regulations (Department of Health and Children, 2006) set out the regulations and requirements pertaining to all aspects of the operation of pre-school settings. Regulation 5 explicitly requires that:A person carrying on a pre-school service shall ensure that each child’s learning, development and well-being is facilitated within the daily life of the service through the provision of the appropriate opportunities, experiences, activities, interaction, materials and equipment, having regard to the age and state of development of the child and the child’s cultural context. To fulfil this requirement it is necessary for practitioners to engage in making important judgements about children’s learning and development and how best to extend and enrich it. By implication this involves the practitioner in assessing learning and development.Indeed, the explanatory guide directs practitione rs to be pro-active in ensuring that appropriate action is taken to address each child’s individual needs with his/her parents and following consultation, where appropriate, with other relevant services (p. 39). While there are other pieces of legislation which impact on aspects of assessment such as the transfer of assessment information between settings, the focus of this paper is on the actual process of using assessment to support early learning and development. How best to comply with the above demands in ways that are respectful to hildren; capture the complexity of early learning; and are helpful in planning future learning experiences has now become a key issue for consideration for early childhood practitioners. Key point Assessment takes place within a particular legislative framework in Ireland. Ethical Issues The nature of the power relations between babies, toddlers and young children and the practitioners with whom they come into contact needs to be acknowledged in the assessment situation. The power of the adult and the relative dependency of children make it imperative that ethical issues are given serious consideration by practitioners.Some of these issues are discussed later in Section 5. 11 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Towards a definition of formative assessment Bowman, Donovan and Burns (2001) suggest that the term assessment, as applied in early childhood education and care, generally implies the intention to provide a rich picture of the ways in which children act, think and learn. Such a picture focuses on the individual’s learning, is built up over time and provides evidence of learning in a number of different contexts.In relation to its importance, they argue that: Assessment has an important role to play in revealing a child’s prior knowledge, development of concepts and ways of interacting with and understanding the worl d so that teachers can choose a pedagogical approach and curricular materials that will support the child’s further learning and development. (p. 259) Pelligrini (1998) describes assessment in early childhood as being about the collection of information about children. This is generally understood to encompass a number of other processes besides collecting. For example, Lally nd Hurst (1992) describe how assessment also involves practitioners in documenting, analysing and reflecting on the information collected, and using this to plan and support further learning. This definition is very similar to that used in Assessment in the Primary School Curriculum: Guidelines for Schools (NCCA, 2007a). While similar methods may be useful in both early childhood settings and in primary school settings, in early childhood assessment particular account needs to be taken of the characteristics of babies, toddlers and young children and to the unique ways in which these children learn.Early childhood assessment focuses specifically on finding out what children are interested in, understand, think, feel, and are able to do. It seeks to document this information in order to understand children’s thinking and learning styles, to chart children’s progress and to support further learning. It is developmental in that it focuses on processes rather than on content or product. Key point Assessment of early learning provides a rich picture of children’s learning by collecting and documenting information. Through reflecting on and using this information, children’s future learning is supported and enhanced.Supporting learning and development Assessment in early childhood has been identified as having a number of functions – ipsative, diagnostic, summative, evaluative and informative (Wood and Attfield, 2005). Assessment in early childhood has enormous potential to support learning and development. A recent large-scale longitudinal study of ear ly learning settings in England confirmed the importance of assessment in meeting children’s needs and in supporting their cognitive progress (Siraj-Blatchford, Sylva, Muttock, Gilden and Bell, 2002).The ultimate purpose of assessment in early childhood is to make learning more interesting, enjoyable and successful for children. Drummond (1993) suggests that assessment must work for children: We can use our assessments to shape and enrich our curriculum, our interactions, our provision as a whole: we can use our assessments as a way of identifying what children will be able to learn next, so that we can support and extend that learning. Assessment is part of our daily practice in striving for quality. (p. 13) Key pointAssessment in early childhood promotes the extension and enrichment of children’s early learning and development. The following section looks at the nature of early learning and the implications for assessing early learning. 12 Aistear: the Early Childhoo d Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 2: The nature of early learning This section of the paper discusses the characteristics of early learning and identifies some key theoretical constructs that guide the teaching, learning and assessment processes during early childhood.Theoretical considerations have been influential in shaping new and emerging approaches to assessment and the most salient of these are discussed in relation to their implications for the assessment of early learning and development. Characteristics of early learning During the early childhood period children’s learning across the various dimensions of development (for example, physical, motor, linguistic, emotional) is greater than at any other period, but is also highly variable across the dimensions.It also occurs very rapidly, is episodic in nature and is very susceptible to environmental conditions (Shepard et al. , 1998). These factors con tribute to making the assessment of early learning and development very challenging. The complexity of early learning We have a great deal of evidence that early learning and development is both extensive and complex (e. g. Drummond, 1993; Bowman et al. , 2001; Carr, 2002). The research paper, Children’s early learning and development (French, 2007) provides information on many facets of early learning and development.Early childhood educators have consistently sought to convey the extent of this complexity and over the years they have provided evidence of exactly how much learning children can demonstrate, provided that it is approached in appropriate ways. For instance, Donaldson (1983) clearly demonstrates how children display different levels of proficiency/learning in different contexts. In her seminal work, Children’s Minds, she reviewed research that illustrated the dramatic effect of the inclusion or omission of a single adjective in questioning children on so- called ‘logical’ tasks.She argues (p. 59) that the young child †¦ first makes sense of situations (and perhaps especially those involving human intentions) and then uses this kind of understanding to help him make sense of what is said to him. Looking not at what children say but at what they do, the work of Athey (1990) and that of Nutbrown (1999) clearly demonstrates how, as children pursue certain schema for considerable periods of time, these can be identified and supported by practitioners. Early learning is seen, for instance in Athey’s work, to have its own recognisable and valid characteristics.Nutbrown (1999) draws out the implication of that work for the assessment of children’s pathways and patterns of development and interest. This work along with that of Drummond (1993) exemplifies vividly how much of children’s learning there is to see if practitioners are open to seeing it by looking beyond what children can tell us and instead o bserving what they actually can do. Play provides an important vehicle and context for this work. Key point During the early childhood period, children’s learning is highly complex and is made visible through assessing carefully and thoughtfully.Key theoretical constructs for assessment Dahlberg, Moss and Pence (1999) observe that in recent years, especially in Western Europe, there has been a process of rethinking childhood that has led to new constructions of the child. They locate this process in a number of interrelated developments with respect to learning theories; philosophy; psychology; sociology; and a concurrent questioning of previous understandings in these fields. From this post-modern perspective, the young child is seen, from the start of life, as a construction of his or her own world.This is very similar to the perspective adopted by Malaguzzi (1993), the founder of the world-renowned Reggio Emilia pre-schools in Italy. Dahlberg et al. (1999) describe how in Reggio Emilia pre-schools, the young child is understood as a unique, complex individual who is rich in the sense that he or she is equipped from the start to engage fully and actively in their world. A wider discussion of these perspectives follows. 13 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessmentEcological perspectives Ecological and socio-cultural theories of learning have largely dominated explanations of development and learning in early childhood in recent years. For instance, ecological (Bronfenbrenner 1979) and bioecological (Bronfenbrenner and Morris, 1998) models of human development have been influential in efforts to understand learning and development and associated processes such as assessment. These models emphasise the role in human development of both the environment and of processes.The research paper, Perspectives on the relationship between education and care (Hayes, 2007) in turn highligh ts both the importance of care and education in facilitating children’s overall development. From this perspective, human development is seen as taking place as a result of progressively more complex reciprocal interactions (p. 996) between the young child and the people, objects and symbols in the environment. To be effective the interactions must occur on a fairly regular basis over extended periods of time (p. 996).These enduring forms of interaction (proximal processes) are seen as key to learning and development and we must study these interactions over time and alongside the observation of behaviour in natural settings. From an ecologicaltheory perspective, Bronfenbrenner (1979) describes how the learner can participate in increasingly more complex learning situations and in doing so take increasingly greater responsibility in the learning situation. The perspective also emphasises the agency or active nature of children in their interactions with adults, objects and sy mbols.The model can be used to draw attention to the interpersonal and situational aspects of assessment, for example: the importance of the personal characteristics of the child and the adult in the assessment context, the importance of reciprocal interactions between child and adult and the importance of assessing children’s level of engagement with the objects and symbols provided in the immediate environment. Thus the ecological approach emphasises assessment of children engaged in real tasks in natural settings.This perspective sits very well with the socio-cultural perspective that we look at next. Socio-cultural perspectives In the past two decades socio-cultural perspectives, that is perspectives that highlight the social and cultural nature of learning, are increasingly used to explain the ways that learning and development occur in early childhood (Anning, Cullen and Fleer, 2004). Socio-cultural theories of learning suggest that the process of learning is as much a social construction as it is an individual one. Rogoff (1998, p. 91) describes development as transformation of participation. Transformation occurs at a number of levels: for instance, the learner changes at the level of their involvement, in the role they play in the learning situation, in the ability they demonstrate in moving flexibly from one learning context to another, and in the amount of responsibility taken in the situation. Activity theory also concentrates on the social aspects of learning. Activity theory Activity theory, which is a development of aspects of Vygotsky’s work (See for example, Engerstrom et al. 1999), is also being highlighted as a theoretical framework that may be useful in explaining the complexity of learning–related issues in early childhood. Fleer, Anning and Cullen (2004) explain how activity theory, in common with Rogoff’s discussion of socio-cultural theory, focuses on the study of the complexity of human behaviour in social g roups and in specific contexts. The theory is premised on the notion that the contextual features of a task contribute to †¦ performance on that task (p. 178).Furthermore, children use tools such as language, a particular action or resource to mediate knowledge in interactions with others. But the cultural features of the context in which they use these tools influences the way activities are performed and understood. Key point If socio-cultural theory informs our understanding of how children learn, it also by implication informs our understanding of assessment. 14 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessmentWhat all of these perspectives hold in common is their emphasis on the socially constructed nature of learning and of assessment. There are a number of other important constructs that also unite them to greater or lesser degrees. These include children’s agency, the importance of collaborati on, and the co-construction of meaning and knowledge. These constructs are particularly helpful when thinking about the quality of the interactions between practitioners and young learners. Quality interactions are increasingly recognised as central to pedagogy (Black and Wiliam 1998a; Siraj-Blatchford et al. , 2002).The next sub-section discusses these ideas in some detail, and in doing so, draws out the implications for assessment practices in early childhood. Children’s agency Bruner (1999a) argues that advances in the study of human development provide us with a profile of the child as an active, intentional being; with knowledge as ‘man-made’ rather than simply there; with ways to negotiate with others in the construction of knowledge. (See French (2007) for more detailed information. ) A crucial aspect of identity and self-esteem is that the child sees him/her self as an agent in control of his/her own actions.Some ways in which children display their agenc y is by taking the initiative in learning situations, by observing and becoming involved in ongoing events, or by initiating conversations with others. Agency is about taking more control of your own mental activity (Bruner, 1996, p. 87). Bruner argues that the agentive mind is not only active in nature but it seeks out dialogue and discourse with other active minds (p. 93). Bruner (1999a) identifies efforts to recognise children’s perspectives in the processes of learning as highly significant and he uses the term pedagogy of mutuality (p. 3) to describe the pedagogy that arises from such endeavours. It is premised on the belief that children are able to reason; to make sense (both alone and in discourse with others); to reflect and to hold theories about self and about the world. The practitioner, according to Bruner (p. 12) is concerned with understanding what the child thinks and how he/she arrives at what he/she believes. He identifies four key research constructs which have enriched this perspective on teaching and learning (and by implication assessment):  ¦Ã‚ ¦Intersubjectivity – how the child develops the ability to read other minds  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Theory of mind – the child’s grasp of another’s intentional state  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Meta-cognition – what the child thinks about learning, remembering thinking  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Collaborative learning – how children, through talk and discussion, explain and revise their thinking. These theoretical ideas are important also in the analysis of assessment as it relates to early learning and development. Children’s collaboration in learning is also important and this is considered below. Key pointThe active role which children themselves play in their interactions with others needs to be recognised and taken into account in any assessment of learning. Children’s collaboration in learning Zone of proximal development Vygotsky’s theory of learning (1978; 1986) has bee n highly influential in helping to explain the processes of learning in early childhood. In particular, his notion of the zone of proximal development has provided the foundation and potential for some of the most important recent initiatives in the assessment of individual children’s learning (Lunt, 2000).Berk and Winsler (1995) describe Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) as a dynamic zone of sensitivity in which learning and cognitive development occur. Tasks that children cannot do individually but they can do with help from others invoke mental functioning that are currently in the process of developing, rather than those that have already matured (p. 26). It appears that Vygotsky originally introduced the ZPD in the context of arguing against intelligence testing which he felt was seeking to assess something static and did not reflect the dynamic and ever-changing 5 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and developm ent through formative assessment nature of human cognition. Adult-child collaboration within the ZPD is critical for effective teaching and learning interactions because it is within such interactions that the practitioner identifies how the child may be assisted in learning and what the child is capable of doing with appropriate support. The practitioner also has the opportunity to assess the impact of such support on the child’s progress.This approach to assessment effectively merges the teaching and assessment processes. It is commonly referred to as dynamic assessment. When Feuerstein (1979) first proposed this form of assessment he was envisioning, in essence, a joint problem-solving situation during which the practitioner gauges the nature and extent of assistance required by the child in order to solve the problem. Children’s responsiveness to appropriate instructional interactions is a key factor in dynamic assessment situations and it is now considered to be a n important predictor of learning potential (Berk and Winsler, 1995).Lidz (1991) emphasises that: The focus of dynamic assessment is on the assessor’s ability to discover the means of facilitating the learning of the child, not on the child’s demonstration of ability to the assessor (as cited in Berk and Winsler, 1995, p. 139). Dynamic assessment is considered by Berk and Winsler (ibid. ) as especially useful for making visible the learning potential of those children whose early experiences do not include experiences that prepare them for learning in group/institutional settings. (For a comprehensive discussion of dynamic assessment and emerging approaches to such assessment, see Lunt, 2000).The concept of scaffolding is often associated with ZPD and it is this which we turn our attention to next. Key point Practitioner’s interactions with children often incorporate both teaching and assessment. It is critical that the practitioner is capable of engaging certai n interactive skills in such situations since these will be necessary to ensure optimal learning and development. Scaffolding Effective scaffolding (Wood, Bruner and Ross, 1976), where the adult guides the child’s learning in the ZPD, is an important feature of the engagement of the child in joint problem solving.Here, the child interacts with the practitioner while the two are jointly trying to reach a goal and this results in the establishment of intersubjectivity (Newson and Newson, 1975). Intersubjectivity refers to the process whereby two participants achieve a shared understanding whilst undertaking a task that they approach from different perspectives. The parties co-construct meanings in activities that involve higher–order thinking (Vygotsky, 1978). Rogoff (1998) emphasises the ongoing mutual process of understanding, which is inherent in joint problemsolving interactions.She also draws attention to the institutional and cultural aspects of joint problemsolvin g activities. She distinguishes between her socio-cultural approach to studying experts’ support of novices’ learning and other approaches which focus on particular techniques such as scaffolding. Rogoff distinguishes between the concepts of ‘scaffolding’ and of working in the zone of proximal development. She describes scaffolding as a specific technique focusing on what experts provide for novices; it focuses on the tutor’s efforts as they relate contingently to the novice’s successes and failures (p. 699).However, working in the zone of proximal development is, in her view, wider than scaffolding. It focuses on the processes of communication that builds a continually evolving mutual perspective. It is a way of describing an activity in which someone with greater expertise assists someone else †¦ to participate in socio-cultural activities in a way that exceeds what they could do otherwise (p. 699). Mutual contribution is an essential consideration so interactions and communicative and collaborative processes all form part of the picture, rather than just the child’s successes or errors as in scaffolding.Rogoff argues that The concept of scaffolding does not refer to the institutional and cultural context in which it occurs, whereas the concept of zone of proximal development requires attention to processes of communication and the relation of the interaction at hand to institutional, cultural and historic processes. (p. 700) 16 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Key point Supporting children’s learning is an important part of assessment. For the practitioner this is often far more complex than simply applying a technique such as scaffolding.Learners make an equally important contribution. Intersubjectivity and collaboration are important in scaffolding children’s learning and we look at these two concepts b elow. Intersubjectivity and collaboration Rogoff (1990; 1998) has illustrated how children make an important contribution in collaborating in the process of establishing joint understanding. Children, including infants in the first year of life, can sometimes be observed to be deliberately taking the lead in collaborative activities by seeking information or by directing activities.Rogoff’s analysis, consistent with Vygotsky, suggests that the intersubjectivity as achieved by adults and babies is different from that achieved by adults and children who can use linguistic (verbal and gestural) communication to achieve mutual understandings. This then has implications for the assessment process across the age range birth to six years. Working in the zone of proximal development with a toddler will include the adult engaging in the demonstration of objects, collaborative activity with objects and the focusing of the child’s attention.Rogoff (1998) points out that the child , for example in seeking to help the adult in everyday chores, very often initiates such activity. Older toddlers and young children will often seek to assert their independence in doing a particular task themselves but Rogoff’s analysis of the research suggests that they also will actively seek assistance when they are stuck. Recently a question has arisen about the capacity of early years settings to support the kinds of relationships and shared experiences that enable children to engage in the types of social participation that promote optimum learning (Parker-Rees, 2007).The research indicates that the nature and scope of babies, toddlers and children’s interactions with parents, the playful quality of these interactions and the extent to which relationships can influence reciprocal imitative behaviour (an important process of learning especially in the first year) must all be fully appreciated by practitioners and be seen as desirable conditions for learning in th e setting. Key point The concept of collaboration is key when considering assessment from a socio-cultural perspective.In collaborating, the child and the practitioner are involved in each other’s thinking processes through shared efforts. In order to assess certain aspects of learning by babies, toddlers and young children, it is essential for adults to collaborate with the children in order to understand their learning. The co-construction of knowledge is supported by intersubjectivity and collaboration and it is to this that we next draw our attention. Children as co-constructors of knowledgeIn recent times the term ‘co-construction’ has featured prominently in influential early childhood publications, although it was implicit in the last century in the work of Dewey (1933) who emphasised the ways in which children construct their learning by actively engaging in, and shaping, their experiences and environments. For instance, Jordan (2004) discusses the term s caffolding and compares it with coconstruction. The specific pattern of interaction that characterised early accounts of scaffolding, according to Jordan (ibid. and Rogoff (1998), generally maintained the power and control with the adult. They argue that the term co-construction emphasises the child as a powerful player in his/her own learning. An example of how this process of co-construction works in practice is illustrated in the discussions of the Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education (Edwards, Gandini and Forman, 1998). Co-construction refers to adults and children making meaning and knowledge together (MacNaughton and Williams, 2004).Co-construction recognises the child’s expertise and in order to understand this, the practitioner needs to interact with the child and become aware of the child’s thoughts and thereby to establish intersubjectivity. 17 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through f ormative assessment Recent research (Siraj-Blatchford et al. , 2002) also highlighted the process of co-construction and found it to be a key factor in terms of promoting children’s learning.Essentially a co-construction perspective emphasises understanding and meaning on the part of both child and adult, rather than the acquisition of facts by the child. Jordan (2004) concludes that the two concepts, scaffolding and co-construction have different applicability depending on whether the goal of the practitioner is the exploration of thinking or the achievement of pre-specified learning goals. Key point Co-construction of meaning and knowledge is central to teaching, learning and assessment and it occurs when both child and practitioner engage together in achieving mutual understanding.Play as a context for formative assessment As this paper demonstrates, children’s learning is complex and assessment approaches need to take cognisance of this. In early childhood, this co mplexity is abundantly evident as children engage in play. The importance of play to young children’s learning and development is a key principle for early childhood practitioners (Wood, 2004). Assessing children’s understandings and progress as they play, either alone or with others, is a crucial activity in early year’s settings. In assessing the child’s learning through play the adult can use a range of approaches and methods.Practitioners make assessments by focusing on children’s play interests, their levels of engagement and participation. They make assessments while skilfully engaging with children in play. Skilful engagement includes intervention in play as and when appropriate. Such interventions may serve to initiate or sustain interactions, thereby leading to shared talking and thinking. They may also involve scaffolding children in order to enable them to reach their potential at a particular time. (See the research paper, Play as a con text for early learning and development (Kernan, 2007) for detailed information on play. Children’s learning is a complex matter and assessment approaches need to take cognisance of this. The paper now looks at emerging approaches to assessment, all of which take account of play as a vehicle for learning and development. Key point Assessing children’s understandings and progress as they play, either alone or with others, is a crucial activity in early year’s settings. Emerging approaches to assessment The rationale for using assessment to enrich and extend children’s learning can be located in recent developments in society’s understandings of learning in the early years.For instance, in recent decades there have been very big changes in our understandings of human nature and of learning. Gardner (1999, p. 91) reviews what he describes as several lines of evidence from the cognitive, neural, and developmental sciences which point to a far more capa cious view of the human mind and of human learning than that which informed earlier conceptions. He presents a picture of assessment that builds on the newly emerging picture of human development (see Table 1). Gardner’s principles complement the earlier principles presented by Shepard et al. 1998). (See pages 16-17. ) 18 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Table 1: Gardner’s understanding of human development and assessment and Shepard’s guiding principles of assessment Features of human development Features of assessment In understanding human development, there is Assessment should  ¦Ã‚ ¦ be simple, natural and occurring on a reliable schedule evidence for the existence of multiple faculties or ‘intelligences’  ¦Ã‚ ¦ have ecological validity (be done in situations hat are real)  ¦Ã‚ ¦ recognition of vast individual differences;  ¦Ã‚ ¦  ¦Ã‚ ¦ the desirab ility of assessing learning in context utilise instruments that are intelligence-fair and not dependent on language or logical faculties  ¦Ã‚ ¦ locating competence and skill ‘outside the head of the individual’.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ use multiple measures  ¦Ã‚ ¦ be sensitive to individual differences, developmental levels and forms of expertise  ¦Ã‚ ¦ use materials which are intrinsically interesting and motivating  ¦Ã‚ ¦ yield information to be used for the learner’s benefit.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ a necessity for a developmental perspective  ¦Ã‚ ¦ n emergence of a symbol-system perspective  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Performance and authentic assessment incorporate some of Gardner’s ideas and a discussion of these follows below. Performance assessment and authentic assessment Emerging approaches to assessment take account of developments in theories about learning and about human development. Performance assessment is currently seen as an approach that is particularly appropriate for asses sing many aspects of early learning and development (see Bowman et al. , 2001). Meisels (1999) describes performance assessment as assessments that are ounded on the notion that learning and development can only be assessed over time and in interactions with materials, objects and other people. In this approach to assessment, the expectation is that tasks must be practical, realistic and challenging for children (Torrance, 2001). Performance assessment implies observation of children as they undertake a number of routine tasks in early learning settings. According to Meisels (1999, p. 58) these should meet a number of criteria:  ¦Ã‚ ¦ tasks should bring together various skills that children display and demonstrate during the course of interactions  ¦ children should be assisted to perform to the very best of their ability  ¦Ã‚ ¦ tasks should be guided by developmental standards  ¦Ã‚ ¦ tasks should engage children in reflection about their work and in articulating their ideas about their learning. Authentic assessment is a type of performance assessment. It is described as compatible with the prevailing philosophy that emphasises whole child development (Puckett and Black 2000, p. 6). This philosophy explains development across a range of domains (for example social, moral, emotional, language and cognitive).It also recognises the diversity of early learning and the role of environmental factors in shaping that learning. From an authentic assessment perspective, curriculum and assessment are interwoven and emphasise relevant and meaningful experiences. Assessment focuses on what children do, and on how they do it in the context of meaningful tasks. Authentic assessment has a number of identifiable features (Puckett and Black, 2000, p. 7), including the following: 19 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment  ¦Ã‚ ¦ an emphasis on emerging development  ¦ a focus on the youn g child’s individual strengths and weaknesses  ¦Ã‚ ¦ is based on principles of child growth and development  ¦Ã‚ ¦ emanates from logical, meaningful, relevant and applicable curricula  ¦Ã‚ ¦ is performance based  ¦Ã‚ ¦ recognises different intelligence and learning styles  ¦Ã‚ ¦ is reflective and analytic  ¦Ã‚ ¦ is ongoing and occurs in many contexts  ¦Ã‚ ¦ is collaborative with learners, parents and others involved in children’s learning  ¦Ã‚ ¦ is interwoven with teaching. Key point Authentic assessment is compatible with a whole child perspective on learning and development. 20 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum FrameworkSupporting early learning and development through formative assessment Summary Where the purpose of assessment is to promote further learning, assessment becomes a particular type of teaching strategy. (See Marshall and Drummond, 2006). Assessment from a socio-cultural perspective takes account of the key learning processes as de termined by socio-cultural theory. In particular, collaboration and the importance in that process of the establishment of mutual understanding (intersubjectivity) need to be emphasised, as do ideas about children’s agency and those related to the co-construction of knowledge and understanding.An understanding of the different processes that contribute to children’s learning, and the types of interactions that promote it are key to understanding how such learning can best be assessed. The recognition of these processes at work is also central in conceptualising assessment approaches that take account of and display the key role of children themselves in the assessment process. Authentic assessment reflects new understandings about learning and about human development, and recognises the holistic, contextualised and dynamic nature of learning in early childhood.Having discussed the interconnection between how children learn and approaches to assessment, the next section looks at what to assess in children’s early learning and development. 21 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 3: What to assess in early learning This section of the paper identifies aspects of learning that are of concern in assessing children’s early learning and development. The challenges of assessing a wide range of learning and development in a balanced way are discussed.The essentials of learning Skills and knowledge are important in respect of early learning. However, increasingly there are calls for a wider view of what it is that children are learning in the years from birth to six, and for explicitness about other areas of children’s development that are now recognised as critical for long term success. For instance, Bertram and Pascal (2002) identify social competence, emotional well-being and dispositions to learn as core constituent elements of the effectiv e learner.In relation to each of these areas they identify elements that characterise the effective learner. Indicators related to disposition include independence, creativity, self-motivation and resilience. Those related to emotional literacy include empowerment, connectedness, and positive self-esteem. Those related to social competence inco